Coal is a major contributor toair pollution, and damageshealth across the nation, being burnt even in homes and cities.[4] Most coal is burnt in power stations, and it is estimated that a phase out ofcoal power in Turkey by 2030 instead of by the 2050s would save over 100 thousand lives.[5]Flue gas emission limits are in place, but data from mandatory reporting is not made public.
Wharf that formerly shipped coal out ofZonguldakCoal-firedOttoman submarineAbdül Hamid, built in 1886, was the first submarine in history to fire a torpedo while submerged.[14]
In 1848 the Ereğli Coal Basin (now called theZonguldak Basin) was mapped and claimed bySultan Abdulmejid I, who later leased it, mainly to foreign merchants.[15] The first customer of Turkey's coal industry was theOttoman Navy. However, during theCrimean War in the mid-1850s, production was commandeered by the Ottoman Empire's allies, theBritish Royal Navy,[15] and production increased by importing mining machinery and training Turkish miners.[16] By 1875 the Ottoman Navy had become the third largest in the world and expansion of the mines attracted workers from outside the area, despite the dangerous conditions.[17]
The mines in Zonguldak were shelled by Russia duringWorld War I (WW1) to disrupt coal supply to Ottoman and German ships.[18] The firstcoal-fired power station in Turkey,Silahtarağa Power Station (nowSantralIstanbul culture center) opened in 1914, and after the destruction of the empire in WW1, and the subsequentTurkish War of Independence, the new Republic of Turkeyindustrialized further as part of Atatürk's reforms.Lignite fromSoma supplied the army in WW1[15] and lignite mining began at several other coalfields in 1927.[19] The Zonguldak coalfield remains the only national source of the hard coal[note 1] which was historically necessary for steelmaking: its mines werenationalized in 1940.[23] In the mid-20th century the state encouraged the growth ofcement[15] andsteelmaking in Zonguldak. The first large coal-fired power stations were built in the late 1950s in two large lignite basins, Soma and Tuncbilek,[24] and in the late 20th century many power stations were constructed near lignite fields such asElbistan coalfield.
In the early 21st century there was a growing realization of the damage done by coal to public health. However, the Turkish government wished to avoid importing too much natural gas, which is a large part of the import bill, with supply dominated byRussia.[25] The nascentenvironmental movement in Turkey was unable to prevent many more coal-fired power stations being built, but did stop some.[26] After years of struggle by environmentalists standards, such as forflue-gas desulfurization, were finally improved at the end of the 2010s.[27] As for steelmaking, most plants are nowelectric arc furnaces.[28]
Starting in the 19th century,stoves took the place ofwood burning ovens in traditional Anatolian houses. For heating, every room had a stove with a stovepipe orchimney. After the late 1970s,coke was reserved for use in institutions such asschools, and the more polluting but cheaper coal was supplied to households. Imports of natural gas started in the late 1980s[29] and by the 2020s the pipeline distribution network had been extended to over 80% of the population.[30] However, due toenergy poverty, some of those people still use coal[31] and the resulting air pollution causes illness and premature deaths.[32] Most buildings constructed since the late 20th century have gas heating, not coal.
In the 2020s, in some provinces coal is still used for heating including public buildings,[33] especially in rural areas, and even occasionally for cooking,[34] although electricity and bottled gas are available everywhere. In 2019 TKI gave one and a half million tonnes of free coal[35] (mostly fromAlpagut Dodurga coal mine) to households with an average per person income less than one third of the minimum wage (less than 700 lira in 2020), even in neighborhoods which have piped gas.[36] In winter 22/23 TKI distributed coal to schools and other educational institutions: this coal has to meet certain indoor heating air pollution limits.[37][38] Indoor concentration ofparticulates is highest in the winter.[39] Over three quarters ofcarbon monoxide deaths are due to stoves: almost 200 in 2017 mostly in poorer rural areas.[40]
As of 2017[update] Turkey was 11th in thelist of countries by coal production, and mined 1.3% of the world's coal, with lignite andsub-bituminous deposits widespread throughout the country.[41] Due tothe country's geology, there is no hard coal, which has a higher energy density (over 7,250 kcal/kg), within 1000 m of the surface.[42][43] All coal deposits are owned by the state but over half of mining is done by the private sector.[41] In 2017 almost half of Turkey's coal production was mined by the state-owned mines, but the government is seeking an expansion of privatization.[44] As of 2019, there are 436coal mining companies such asAkçelik,[45] 740 coal mines,[46] and more mining and exploration licences are being tendered.[47] However, some drilling companies are not bidding for licences because mineral exploration is more profitable and in 2018 many mining licences were combined with coal licenses.[48] Mining is documented in the "e-maden" computer system ("maden" means "mine" in Turkish).[49] Coal miners do not have the right tostrike.[50] A company called Tarhan Maden has proposed a mine in the district ofTavşanlı in Kütahya Province.[51] Unions have complained of mines they say are unsafe, such asKınık coal mine.[52]
The Zonguldak basin in the northwest is the only coal mining region in Turkey that produces hard coal: about 2 million tons a year[53] from mines includingKandilli,Amasra,Karadon,Kozlu andÜzülmez.[54] Compared to other countries, theenergy value of the coal is low, at 6,200 kilocalories per kilogram (2,800 kcal/lb) to 7,250 kcal/kg (3,290 kcal/lb).[3] Up to 72.5% is organic carbon.[55] 10 to 15% iscoal ash, 4 to 14% moisture, and 0.8 to 1%sulfur.[56] Although low grade it is generally of cokeable or semi-cokeable quality.[57][54] Because there is so muchfaulting andfolding, mining in the region is very difficult.[42]Long-wall mining is necessary due to thetectonic structure of theseams.[43]
Turkey is one of the countries which mines the most lignite.[58] The most significant deposits of lignite were laid down in thegeological Neogene period.[59] Almost half of the country's lignite reserves are in the Afşin–Elbistan basin.[3] Lignite coalfields include Elbistan, Kutahya Tavsanlı, Inez,Manisa, İnağzı-Bağlık andGediz,[60][54] and 90% of lignite production is fromsurface mines.[41] Locations of major individual lignite mines includeTunçbilek inTavşanlı,Yatağan near the southernAegean Sea,Yeniköy inMuğla andSeyitömer inKütahya; and there is agilsonite mine inSilopi.[54] Turkish lignite has high carbon,[note 2] sulphur, ash, moisture andvolatile components.[57][54] Itscalorific value is less than 12.5 MJ/kg – and that from Afsin Elbistan has less than 5 MJ/kg, which is a quarter of typical thermal coal.[62] Opencast mining of lignite can destroyforest land, as although soil must be stored by law, it can degrade before reforestation.[63] In 2023 a proposed rule allowing removal ofolive trees was retracted.[64]
Exploration and research is done by theGeneral Directorate of Mineral Research and Exploration.[65] In the 2010s coal mining technology from China was imported.[66] But according to energy analyst Haluk Direskeneli coal power plant technology which has been imported is unsuitable for Turkish coal, sorefractory distortions are occurring, andcontrol systems and other equipment is failing. He says thatcirculating fluidized bed (CFB) technology is unsuitable because Turkish lignite does not burn continuously in the CFB combustion chamber without supplementary liquid fuel. In Direskeneli's opinion "local coal enters the combustion chamber as ice in winter and as mud in summer", so the water content of domestic coal should be reduced by preheating.[67]
As of 2018[update], environmental regulations for coal mines still lag behind international standards despite improvements.[68] As of 2019[update] an expansion of coal washing capacity was planned together with research oncoal pollution mitigation and lignitegasification.[69] According to the Eleventh Development Plan (2019-2023): "In order to reduce the import dependence and current accounts deficit in energy, exploration, generation and R & D activities will be increased for high potential domestic resources such as geothermal and shale gas, especially lignite."[70]
The Istanbul Policy Center estimates that every year in Turkey, the mining and burning of coal causes at least 2,800 premature deaths, 637,000 working days to be lost, and 3.6 billion euros in additional costs. Although there are some concerns about ground[71][note 3] and water[73] pollution, most coal-related deaths are caused by worseningair pollution in Turkey.[6]
Children's models commemorating the Soma mine disaster - "This is how they earn their daily bread"
After the deaths of over 300 people in theSoma mine disaster in 2014,[74] new health and safety regulations were introduced. As of 2018[update], most mining accidents happen in coal mines but the reasons for Turkey's poor mining safety are not entirely clear.[75] According to a 2022 study the small number of workers intrade unions and the widespread use ofsubcontractors contribute to poor working conditions.[76]: 162
Coal contributes to air pollution in big cities.[85] TheOrganisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) says that residential heating is emitting dangerous levels of fine particulates: so it recommends reducing particulate emissions by not using coal.[86] There is apollutant release and transfer register, but as of September 2024 no years are publicly searchable because it is not yet technically complete, and it is not known what exemptions will be granted.(see FAQ).[87] As of 2024 Turkey has not joined 2 international agreements to reduceSOx emissions.[88]
100 million tonnes(mt) of coal was burned in 2023. 46 mt of lignite and asphaltite was used to generate electricity bycoal-fired power stations in Turkey, 6 mt by other industry, and 5 mt for heating buildings. 25 mt of hard coal was used to generate electricity, 6 mt in coke plants, 1 mt iron-steel, 4 mt other industry, and 3 mt for heating.[8]
Lignite fired power stations did not become more productive between 2009 and 2018,[92] but three-quarters by weight of coal burnt in Turkish power stations is lignite.[93] Demand and price of coal increased in 2022 due to theEuropean energy crisis.[94] In 2022 14% of household final energy was coal.[95]
Air pollution fromcoal-fired power stations is damaging public health,[98]: 48 and it is estimated that acoal phase-out by 2030 instead of by the 2050s would save over 100,000 lives.[99]Flue gas emission limits were improved in 2020, but data from mandatory reporting of emission levels is not made public. Turkey has not ratified theGothenburg Protocol, which limits fine dust polluting other countries. As of 2023 officialhealth impact assessment is not done in Turkey.[100]: 50
Turkey's coal is almost all low calorielignite, but government policy supports its continued use. In contrast,Germany is closing lignite-fired stations under 150 MW.[101]Drought in Turkey is frequent, butthermal power stations use significant amounts of water.[102]
Coal-fired power stations are the largest source ofgreenhouse gas, at about a tonne each year per person, which is about the world average.[103] Coal-fired stations emit over 1 kg ofcarbon dioxide for every kilowatt hour generated,[104] over twice that ofgas power. Academics suggest that in order to reach Turkey's target ofcarbon neutrality by 2053, coal power should be phased out by the mid-2030s.[105] In January 2023 the National Energy Plan was published: it forecast a capacity increase to 24.3 GW by 2035,[106]: 23 including 1.7 GW more by 2030.[106]: 15 However by 2024 it was obvious that no new coal power stations would be built,[107]: 11 althoughÇelikler Holding still want to add units toAfşin Elbistan A,[108] which is the only proposal for new unabated coal power in theOECD.[109] The national plan forecasts coal generation decreasing but capacity payments continuing for flexible and baseload power.[106]: 25 In 2024 Turkey is burning more coal for electricity than any country in the European Union.[110]
Free coal delivered to a poor household inSamsun in 2024
As a signatory of theConvention on Biological Diversity (Aichi Target 3), Turkey committed to phasing out environmentally harmful subsidies, includingthose to fossil fuels, by 2020.[116] However, coal remained the most subsidized source of electricity in Turkey.[117] Lignite-fired power stations receive multiple subsidies for construction[118][note 5] and operation.[120] Specific subsidy programs includevalue-added tax waivers, offsetting investment costs and tax reductions.[121] There is a guaranteed purchase price per MWh.[122]
Turkey's government support to coal and coal-fired power production and consumption ₺ millions, 2016–2017 annual average[116]
Instrument
Coal production
Coal-fired power
Coal consumption
Fiscal support (budgetary transfers and tax exemptions)
Several companies have acquired mining rights for hard coal fields: Erdemir Madencilik, a subsidiary of Turkey's autonomous military pension program;Oyak; Tumas, a subsidiary of Bereket Holding, and energy company Emsa Enerji.[60] In 2019 private companies paid over 20 million lira royalties to TTK.[127] Lignite fields have been transferred to Imbat Madencilik (which is on the GCEL[128]), Fernas Holding, Demir Export and construction group Yapi Tek.[43]Eren Holding holds the largest amount of coal-fired generation capacity, 2,790 megawatts,[129] at the ZETES power complex in Zonguldak. Several companies hold more than a gigawatt of coal power capacity:IC Içtaş Enerji, the state-owned EÜAŞ; Konya Şeker, a company owned byAnadolu Birlik Holding; ERG Elektrik;Diler Holding;Çelikler Holding andCiner Holding.[130] Akçelik also mines opencast[131] and is on the Global Coal Exit List.[132] However, mining licence information that is held by the government in the "e-maden" database is not released to the public.[133]
In the late 2010s, the government attempted to auction mine licenses to private companies provided that they would build nearby power plants,[43] but the auctions attracted little interest[134] as the currency weakened.[135] And although lignite is more polluting than most other types of coal, the government tried to persuade other coal-fired power stations to convert to lignite to reduce import costs.[136] The2018 Turkish currency crisis andCOVID-19 recession increased costs for mining companies and increased the difficulty of obtaining bank credits, threatening the coal industry.[137][138] Traders include Elgin Emtia,[139] which together with other companies is on the Global Coal Exit List compiled by the NGOUrgewald.[140]
Much of the rise in consumption in the 21st century was due to the construction of coastal power stations burning imported hard coal.
Imported coal generates about a quarter of the nation's electricity.[144] 24 million tonnes of coal were imported in 2023.[145] 70% of thermal coal imports are fromRussia,[146] because the price is discounted.[147] Acustoms union deal with the EU includes bilateral trade concessions on coal.[148]
About half ofmetallurgical coal imports are from Australia and most of the rest from the US, with small amounts from Russia and Colombia.[149] The main ports for import of met coal are Eregli, Zonguldak andIskenderun.[150] As of 2018[update] if the import price of thermal coal is less than 70 US$/tonne (fob) the state charges the difference as import duty.[65]: 31 In 2020 coking coal cost around US$130/tonne.[151]Anthracite coal fromDonbas, a region in Ukraine, is exported (allegedly illegally) to Turkey.[152][153] The anthracite is transported through the Russian ports ofAzov andTaganrog to the Turkish city ofSamsun.[154] Some analysts say that coal which was formerly exported to the EU but is now sanctioned is instead being bought by Turkey,[155] and that as of end-2022 Turkey is the largest buyer of Russian coal.[156]
According to a 2022 study thePresidency of Strategy and Budget and the Turkey Wealth Fund have the most influence on coal policy and investment decisions, but some say that the wealth fund lacks public scrutiny.[76]: 157 The study concluded that increasingenergy security and thusnational security by limiting imports was the mainenergy policy aim.[76]: 159 Increasing coal power was part of the 2022 national energy plan,[157]: 15 but the private sector will not invest in it without substantial government support. According to Ümit Şahin, who teaches climate change atSabancı University, Turkey is not facing up to the reality that most coal will have to be left in the ground and risks losing access to internationalclimate finance if the country does not quickly schedule an exit from coal.[158]
Many local communities strongly oppose coal power stations[159] and mines,[160] sometimes taking legal action against them.[161] From the late 2000s, residents of Amasra strongly fought against the establishment of a coal-fired power station near the city; it was cancelled.[162] InAlpu district, locals of the region won a court battle in 2018 to prevent the building of a new coal mine; the 14th chamber of theCouncil of State ruled that the mine could only be built with an environmental report.[163] Turkish activists have also taken their campaign to international conferences.[164] Nevertheless, in 2019 only 36 of the 600 members ofparliament voted to reduce power plant emission limits.[165] In 2021 inhabitant of İkizköy village continue to protest and filed a lawsuit: they claim that a permit to cut downAkbelen Forest to expand a lignite mine should not have been granted without an environmental impact assessment.[166] The company (part owned byLimak Holding) says that Akbelen was allocated to the coal mine when theKemerköy and Yeniköy power plants were built, and that theGeneral Directorate of Forestry defined it as an "industrial plantation area for 2019".[167]
The UN[172] and youth activists have called for a 2030 end date,[173] but as of 2023[update] there is no plan to reduce coal use.[174] TheWorld Bank has proposed general objectives and estimated the cost, but has suggested government do far more detailed planning.[175]
A 2020 study of coal-fired residential heating in Turkey's 3rd largest cityİzmir estimated the cost of replacing it versus the reduction in illness and premature deaths.[32] Five old plants (Afşin-Elbistan A, Seyitömer, Tunçbilek,Kangal and Çatalağzı) were closed in 2020 because they did not meet new pollution limits[176] but were all restarted later in the year.[177] The country is the world's ninth-largest consumer of coal, similar to Poland.[178] In contrast during the early 21st century German energy from coal fell from 6x that of Turkey to below Turkey.[179] In terms of energy resources, Spain is more similar, having hydropower and abundant sunshine, and its transition away from coal could also be a model.[180] Turkish industry has experience converting coal to solar outside the country.[181] Companies which get much of their revenue from coal (such as Elgin Emtia and İmbat with over 90%) are on theUrgewald Global Coal Exit List.[182]
Historically some agricultural workers moved to coal with the expropriation of agricultural land for the coal industry.[76]: 162 Although only 0.3% of workers are coal miners it is very important for some small isolated communities: middle-aged miners inSoma are particularly vulnerable.[183] In 2019, the minimum wage for coal miners was twice the standard minimum wage.[184]
Due to the complex geology of the Zonguldak basin, hard coal production in Turkey is insignificant, heavily subsidised and labour-intensive.[56] However, Zonguldak Province is highly dependent on coal.[185] By 2021 the number of people working in hard coal mines in Zonguldak had dropped to 7,000: many people of working age had moved to Istanbul, and the population had decreased, leaving more pensioners than working people in the province.[186] Despite this, as of 2020[update], Turkey had not implemented ajust transition policy,[187] although the government spoke in favor of it in 2015[188] and it is supported by theEuropean Bank for Reconstruction and Development[189] and environmental organisations such asGreenpeace.[190]
^The Energy Ministry defines “hard coal” as “bituminous coal”.[20] Total organic carbon of Turkish coal is up to 72.5%,[21] whereas anthracite has over 86%.[22] Therefore Turkey has no anthracite and the use of the phrase "hard coal" for coal mined in Turkey does not mean anthracite.
^Thenet calorific value of Turkish lignite is lower than that of typical lignite,[61] varying by power station; its average is about 2,800
^Fly ash, a byproduct of the coal refining process, is often sold to cement factories as a raw material.[6] Concentrations of naturalradionuclides vary depending on the power station and the product may be safe in building materials depending on the amount used.[72]
^EMRA totals 15 + 22 + 15 = 52 coal power licences - but as ZETES 1 2 and 3 have the same licence if counted as separate power stations the total would be 54, which almost matches the total on the Turkish version of the Wikipedia list.[97]: 19
^Lignite is in group 4-b of Article 2 of Mining Law No. 3213[119] thus lignite-fired power plants can receive region 5 subsidies regardless of their actual location in Turkey.
^Şengül, H. Tarık; Aytekin, E. Attila (2012), Kirk, John; Contrepois, Sylvie; Jefferys, Steve (eds.), "Zonguldak Coalfield and the Past and Future of Turkish Coal-mining Communities",Changing Work and Community Identities in European Regions: Perspectives on the Past and Present, Identity Studies in the Social Sciences, Palgrave Macmillan UK, pp. 154–183,doi:10.1057/9780230353916_6,ISBN9780230353916
^Rogan, Eugene.The fall of the Ottomans.Penguin books. p. 95.
^Ozden, Banu; Güler, Erkan; Vaasma, Taavi; Horváth, Mária; Kiisk, Madis; Kovács, Tibor (August 2018). "Enrichment of naturally occurring radionuclides and trace elements in Yatagan and Yenikoy coal-fired thermal power plants, Turkey".Journal of Environmental Radioactivity.188:100–107.Bibcode:2018JEnvR.188..100O.doi:10.1016/j.jenvrad.2017.09.016.PMID28965987.
^ERBOY, Fatma."Coal Worker's Pneumoconiosis"(PDF). Zonguldak Kara Elmas Üniversitesi Tıp Fakültesi, Göğüs Hastalıkları Ana Bilim Dalı, Zonguldak.Archived(PDF) from the original on 27 January 2020.
^"Kömür yerli ama ödemesi dolarla" [The coal is local but payment is in dollars].Sözcü. 5 February 2019.Archived from the original on 14 February 2019. Retrieved13 February 2019.
^"Türkiye'nin kömür aşkı bitmiyor" [Turkey's love of coal never ends].www.sozcu.com.tr (in Turkish). 7 February 2020.Archived from the original on 7 February 2020. Retrieved5 March 2020.
^Siccardi, Francesco."Will Green Activism Save Turkey's Democracy?".Carnegie Europe. Retrieved7 July 2022.the Ministry of Interior made an active decision not to approve the party's registration—a prerequisite for it to operate in Turkey
