Central entry checkpoint toSeversk, a closed city in Russia's Tomsk Oblast, 2010
Aclosed city orclosed town is a settlement where travel or residency restrictions are applied.[1] Historically, the construction of closed cities became increasingly common in theSoviet Union during theCold War.[1] Since thedissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991, they remain widespread inRussia and some of the otherpost-Soviet countries. In modern Russia, closed cities are designated as "closed administrative–territorial formations".
Closed cities are sometimes represented only onclassified maps that are not available to the general public.[1]
Sometimes, closed cities are indicated obliquely as a nearby insignificant village, with the name of the stop serving the closed city made equivocal or misleading. For mail delivery, a closed city is usually named as the nearest large city and a special postcode, for example, Arzamas‑16, Chelyabinsk‑65. The actual settlement can be rather distant from its namesakes; for instance,Sarov, designated Arzamas-16, is in the federal republic ofMordovia, whereasArzamas is inNizhny Novgorod Oblast (roughly 75 kilometres (47 mi) away). People not living in a closed city were subject to document checks andsecurity checkpoints, and explicit permission was required for them to visit.[2] To relocate to a closed city, one would need security clearance by the organization running it, such as theKGB in Soviet closed cities.
Closed cities may be guarded by a security perimeter withbarbed wire andtowers. The very fact of such a city's existence was often classified, and residents were expected not to divulge their place of residence to outsiders. This lack of freedom was often compensated by better housing conditions and a better choice of goods in retail trade than elsewhere in the country.[1]
Map ofRussia's federal subjects, with those highlighted in red containing closed cities for nuclear research and development, as of July 2009[update].
Closed cities were established in theSoviet Union from the late 1940s onwards under the euphemistic name of "post boxes", referring to the practice of addressing post to them via mailboxes in other cities. They fell into two distinct categories.
The first category comprised relatively small communities with sensitive military, industrial, or scientific facilities, such as arms plants ornuclear research sites.[3] Examples are the modern towns ofOzyorsk (Chelyabinsk-65) with aplutonium production plant, andSillamäe, the site of auranium enrichment facility. Even Soviet citizens were not allowed access to these places without proper authorization. In addition to this, some bigger cities were closed for unauthorized access to foreigners, while they were freely accessible to Soviet citizens. These included cities likePerm, a center for Soviet artillery, munitions, and also aircraft engines production, andVladivostok, the headquarters and primary base of theSoviet Pacific Fleet.
The second category consisted of border cities (and some whole border areas, such as theKaliningrad Oblast,[citation needed]Saaremaa, andHiiumaa), which were closed for security purposes. Comparable closed areas existed elsewhere in theEastern bloc; a substantial area along theinner German border and the border betweenWest Germany andCzechoslovakia was placed under similar restrictions (although by the 1970s foreigners could cross the latter by train). Citizens were required to have special permits to enter such areas.
The locations of the first category of closed cities were chosen for their geographical characteristics. They were often established in remote places deep in theUrals andSiberia, out of reach of enemy bombers. They were built close to rivers and lakes that were used to provide the large amounts of water needed for heavy industry and nuclear technology. Existing civilian settlements in the vicinity were often used as sources of construction labour. Although the closure of cities originated as a strictly temporary measure that was to be normalized under more favorable conditions, in practice the closed cities took on a life of their own and became a notable institutional feature of the Soviet system.[4]
Any movement to and from closed areas was tightly controlled. Foreigners were prohibited from entering them and local citizens were under stringent restrictions. They had to have special permission to travel there or leave, and anyone seeking residency was required to undergo vetting by theNKVD and its successor agencies. Access to some closed cities was physically enforced by surrounding them withbarbed wire fences monitored by armed guards.
Russia has the largest number of closed cities globally. The policy governing these cities underwent significant changes in the late 1980s and early 1990s. The adoption of a new constitution for the Russian Federation in 1993 prompted substantial reforms to the status of closed cities, which were subsequently renamed "closed administrative-territorial formations" (or ZATO, from the Russian acronym,Закры́тое администрати́вно-территориа́льное образова́ние (ЗАТО́)).Municipally, all such entities have the status of urbanokrugs, as mandated by federal law.
There are 44 publicly acknowledged closed cities in Russia with a total population of approximately 1.5 million people. Seventy-five percent are administered by theRussian Ministry of Defense, with the remainder under the administration ofRosatom.[5] It is believed that about 15 additional closed cities exist, but their names and locations have not been publicly disclosed by the Russian government.[6]
Some Russian closed cities are open to foreign investment, but entry for foreigners requires a permit. An example of international cooperation in these cities is the Nuclear Cities Initiative (NCI), a joint effort of the United StatesNational Nuclear Security Administration andMinatom, which involves, in part, the cities ofSarov,Snezhinsk, andZheleznogorsk.
The number of closed cities has been significantly reduced since the mid-1990s. However, on 30 October 2001, foreign travel was restricted without exception in the northern cities ofNorilsk,Talnakh,Kayerkan,Dudinka, andIgarka. Russian and Belarusian citizens visiting these cities are not required to have permits; however, local courts have been known to deport Belarusian citizens.[7]
The number of closed cities in Russia is defined by government decree. The reasons for restrictions vary. These cities include:
This is adynamic list and may never be able to satisfy particular standards for completeness. You can help byediting the page to add missing items, with references toreliable sources.
Tsiolkovsky – renamed from Uglegorsk in 2013 and known as Svobodny-18 (Свободный-18) before that, site of the second Russian trialcosmodrome of the Ministry of Defense of the Russian Federation, also calledSvobodny Cosmodrome.
Mezhgorye – formerly known as Ufa-105 (Уфа-105) and Beloretsk-15 (Белорецк-15), home to the 129th Directorate of strategic subjects' technical supply and maintenance.
Ozyorsk – formerly known as Chelyabinsk-65 (Челябинск-65) and Chelyabinsk-40 (Челябинск-40), nuclear material processing and recycling plant.[9][10]
Snezhinsk – formerly known as Chelyabinsk-70 (Челябинск-70), site of one of the two major Russian Federal Nuclear Centers.[9]
Tryokhgorny – formerly known as Zlatoust-36 (Златоуст-36), site of development of parts and machinery for atomic stations and weaponry.[9]
Kamchatka Krai
Vilyuchinsk – formerly known as Petropavlovsk-Kamchatsky-50 (Петропавловск-Камчатский-50), base of a squadron of submarines from theRussian Pacific Fleet, also involved in the production of nuclear submarines.[citation needed]
There is a list of territories within Russia that do not have closed-city status but require special permits for foreigners to visit.[17] The largest locality within such territory is the city ofNorilsk.[18]
There were two closed cities inEstonia:Sillamäe andPaldiski. As with all the other industrial cities, their population was mainly Russian-speaking. Sillamäe was the site for a chemical factory that producedfuel rods and nuclear materials for the Sovietnuclear power plants andnuclear weapon facilities, while Paldiski was home to aSoviet Navynuclear submarine training centre. Sillamäe was closed until Estonia regained its independence in 1991; Paldiski remained closed until 1994, when the last Russian warship left.[19]
Baikonur, a town close to theBaikonur Cosmodrome inKazakhstan, which is rented and administered by Russia. Non-resident visitors will need pre-approval from the Russian authorities to visit both the town of Baikonur itself and the Cosmodrome. Note that said approval is completely separate from just having a Russian visa. Some tourism organisations in Kazakhstan provide services in organising trips to visit Baikonur and the museums contained there.
Moldova has one partially closed city: the village ofCobasna (Rîbnița District), which is under the control of the unrecognized state ofTransnistria internationally recognized as part of Moldova. The village, on the left bank of theDniester river, containsa large Soviet-era ammunition depot guarded by Russian troops.[24][25] Only the Transnistrian and Russian authorities have detailed information about this depot.[26]
During theperiod of communist rule in Albania, the towns ofÇorovodë and Qyteti Stalin (nowKuçovë) were closed cities with a military airport, military industry and other critical war infrastructure.
No. 404 Factory ofChina National Nuclear Corporation (中国核工业总公司第四零四厂), then theMinistry of Nuclear Industry, in theGobi desert in the western part ofGansu, is a closed town often called thenuclear town (核城). Built in 1958, it is China's biggest nuclear industry base. China built its first militarynuclear reactor[29][30] there and 80% of the core parts for China's nuclear bombs were produced there. Until the 1980s, the whole town was closed to outsiders.[31] A nuclear accident happened in 1969, involving a leak.[32] The name "mine area of Gansu" (甘肃矿区) was used for secrecy. In 2007, most residents were moved to nearbyJiayuguan City.
Some remote areas in China, such asDatong Hui and Tu Autonomous County (except Laoye Mountain),Huangzhong County (exceptKumbum Monastery), andHuangyuan County aroundXining, the capital ofQinghai, maintain travel restrictions for foreigners. A foreigner must apply for an alien travel document (外国人旅行证) in advance, and report their accommodation to local police within 24 hours after entering the area.[33]
Riems, Germany, an island in the Bay of Greifswald, is home to the oldest virological research institution in the world and is closed to the public. Quarantine stables and laboratories have a high level of security. This means employees and visitors to the complex must change their clothes and shower when entering and exiting.
The Frontier Closed Area (FCA) is a restricted zone along the northern border of Hong Kong, serving as a buffer between the closed border and the rest of the territory. Access to this area requires a Closed Area Permit. From 1951 to 2012, the FCA encompassed an area of 28 square kilometres, containing numerous villages. Following several stages of reduction, by 2016, the border town ofSha Tau Kok remained as the sole settlement within the FCA.
Within theKorean Demilitarized Zone betweenNorth Korea andSouth Korea are two "peace villages" (one maintained by each nation):Daeseong-dong (South) and (possibly)Kijŏng-dong (North). Access by non-residents to Daeseong-dong requires a military escort, while Kijŏng-dong is not accessible to visitors.
Alexander Bay, Northern Cape. After diamonds were discovered along this coast in 1925 byHans Merensky,Alexander Bay became known for its mining activities. The town was a high-security area and permits were needed when entered. Today, it is no longer a high-security area and no permits are needed.
Imber, England, has been closed since 1943 when its residents were evicted by theBritish Army, who continue to use the village as a training ground forurban warfare. While most of the village's buildings have been demolished and replaced for training purposes, the village church (St Giles') was kept intact and the village is occasionally opened to the public during holidays.
Foulness Island contains two villages with permanent residences, but public right of way is limited to certain paths and access controlled by theMinistry of Defence. The site contains an active live firing range, as well as several inactive firing ranges and other structures as well as the site of the development and testing of the UK's first atomic weapons.
Johnston Atoll is closed to public entry, with limited access for management needs if one is granted a letter of authorization from theUnited States Air Force.
Mercury, Nevada, is within theNevada Test Site, the primary testing location of American nuclear devices from 1951 to 1992, currently called Nevada National Security Site, and is currently closed as part of this site.
Between 1957 and 1962, approximately one-third of the United States was closed to Soviet citizens.[48] Only seven states were accessible in their entirety: Oregon, Wyoming, Utah, North Carolina, Arkansas, Vermont, and Mississippi.[48][49]
^Victor Zaslavsky, "Ethnic group divided: social stratification and nationality policy in the Soviet Union", p. 224, in Peter Joseph Potichnyj,The Soviet Union: Party and Society, Cambridge University Press, 1988.ISBN0-521-34460-3.
^Nadezhda Kutepova & Olga Tsepilova, "A short history of the ZATO", pp. 148–149, inCultures of Contamination, Volume 14: Legacies of Pollution in Russia and the US (Research in Social Problems and Public Policy), editors Michael Edelstein, Maria Tysiachniouk, Lyudmila V. Smirnova. JAI Press, 2007.ISBN0-7623-1371-4
^Greg Kaser, "Motivation and Redirection: Rationale and Achievements in the Russian Closed Nuclear Cities", p. 3, inCountering Nuclear and Radiological Terrorism, editors David J. Diamond, Samuel Apikyan, Greg Kaser. Springer, 2006.ISBN1-4020-4897-1
^环保部西北核与辐射安全监督站驻四〇四厂监督点调研团."静静地守候 默默地奉献". No. 25 September 2013.中央国家机关团工委2013年“根在基层·中国梦”（美丽中国）调研实践活动. Archived fromthe original on 2 May 2019. Retrieved31 December 2015.
^http://sdsharkdiving.com/isla-guadalupe/ Sdsharkdiving.com/isla-guadalupe. San Diego Shark Diving.Isla Guadalupe White Shark Trip - FAQs. Retrieved August 17, 2018.
^http://www.squalodivers.com/ Squalo Divers.Guadalupe Island, Giant Fortress. March 27, 2017. Retrieved August 17, 2018.
^"DPG Visitors Guide"(PDF). United States Army, Dugway Proving Ground. p. 9. Archived fromthe original(pdf) on November 12, 2017. RetrievedNovember 10, 2017.
Bukharin, Oleg (September/October 1998)."Retooling Russia's Nuclear Cities".The Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists – Educational Foundation for Nuclear Science.
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