 A map of central Rome during the time of theRoman Empire, showing the Cloaca Maxima in red | |
   Cloaca Maxima Shown within Augustan Rome | |
 Click on the map for a fullscreen view | |
| Coordinates | 41°53′20″N12°28′49″E / 41.88889°N 12.48028°E /41.88889; 12.48028 |
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TheCloaca Maxima (Latin:Cloāca Maxima[kɫɔˈaːkaˈmaksɪma],lit. 'Greatest Drainage'; alsoMaxima Cloaca) was originally built to drain the rain water from the city of Rome, and is one of the world's earliestdrainage systems. Its name is related to that ofCloacina, aRoman goddess.[1] Built during either theRoman Kingdom or earlyRoman Republic, it was constructed inAncient Rome in order to drain local marshes and remove waste from the city. It carriedeffluent to the RiverTiber, which ran besidethe city. The sewer started at theForum Augustum and ended at thePonte Rotto andPonte Palatino. It began as an open air canal, but it developed into a much larger sewer over the course of time.Agrippa renovated and reconstructed much of the sewer. This would not be the only development in the sewers, by the first century AD all eleven Romanaqueducts were connected to the sewer. After theRoman Empire fell the sewer still was used. By the 19th century, it had become atourist attraction. Some parts of the sewer are still used today. During its heyday, it was highly valued as a sacred symbol ofRoman culture andRoman engineering.
According to tradition, it may have initially been constructed around 600 BC under the orders of theking of Rome,Tarquinius Priscus.[2][3] He orderedEtruscan workers and theplebeians to construct thedrainage.[4] Before constructing the Cloaca Maxima, Priscus, and his sonTarquinius Superbus, worked to transform the land by theRoman forum from aswamp into a solid building ground, thusreclaiming theVelabrum.[5][6][7] In order to achieve this, they filled it up with 10-20,000 cubic meters of soil, gravel, and debris.[8][9][10]
At the beginning of thedrainage's life it consisted of open-air channels lined up with bricks centered around a main pipe.[11][12] At this stage it might have had no roof. However, wooden holes spread throughout the sewer indicate that wooden bridges may have been built over it, which possibly functioned as a roof. Alternatively, the holes could have functioned as a support for thescaffolding needed to construct the drainage.[13] The Cloaca Maxima may also have originally been an open drain, formed fromstreams originating from three of the neighboring hills, that were channeled through the mainForum and then on to the Tiber.[3] As building space within the city became more valuable, the drain was gradually built over.[citation needed]
By the time of the lateRoman Republic this drainage became the city's mainstorm drain.[14] It developed into a system 1,600 meters long.[15] By the second century BC, it had a 101 meter longcanal which was covered up and expanded into also function as the main urban sewer system.[16][17][18]Pliny the Elder, writing in the late 1st century, describes the early Cloaca Maxima as "large enough to allow the passage of a wagon loaded with hay."[19] Eventually, the drainage could not continue growing to keep up with the expanding city. Romans would discard waste through other openings rather than the sewers.[12] From 31 BC to 192 AD manholes could be used to access the drainage, which could be traversed by canal at this point.Manholes were decorated with marble reliefs, and canals were made of Roman concrete andflint.[20]
The elevenaqueducts which supplied water to Rome by the 1st century AD were finally channeled into this drainage system after having supplied many of the public baths such as theBaths of Diocletian and theBaths of Trajan, as well as the public fountains, imperial palaces and private houses.[21][22] The continuous supply of running water helped to remove wastes and keep the drainage system clear of obstructions. The best waters were reserved for potable drinking supplies, and the second quality waters would be used by the baths, the outfalls of which connected to the sewer network under the streets of the city.[23][24] The Cloaca Maxima drainage system was well maintained throughout the life of theRoman Empire and even today drains rainwater and debris from the center of town, below the ancient Forum,Velabrum, and theForum Boarium. In more recent times, the remaining passages have been connected to the modern-day urban drainage system, mainly to cope with problems ofbackwash from the river.[citation needed]
After the fall of the Roman empire the Cloaca Maxima continued to be used. In the 1600s theCardinal Chamberlain imposed atax on residents ofRome in order to pay for theupkeep of the drainage.[13] By the time of the 1800s the Cloaca Maxima became popular as atourist attraction. From 1842 to 1852 sections of the drainage system weredrained.Pietro Narducci, an Italian engineer was hired by thecity of Rome to survey and restore the parts of the drainage by the Forum and theTorre dei Conti in 1862. In 1890Otto Ludwig Richter, a German archaeologist created amap of the drainage.[25] These efforts renewed public interest insanitation.[13]
The Cloaca Maxima started at theForum Augustum and followed the natural course of the suburbs of ancient Rome, which led between theQuirinal,Viminal, andEsquilline Hills. It also passed by theForum of Nerva, theArch of Janus, theForum Boarium, theBasilica Aemilia, and theForum Romanum, ending at theVelabrum.[26] The drainage's outfall was by thePonte Rotto andPonte Palatino. Some of this is still visible today.[20][27] The branches of the main drainage all appear to be 'official' drains that would have served public toilets, bathhouses and other public buildings.[citation needed]
The extraordinary greatness of the Roman Empire manifests itself above all in three things: the aqueducts, the paved roads, and the construction of the drains.
The Cloaca Maxima was large enough for "wagons loaded with hay to pass" according toStrabo. It could transport one million pounds of water, unwanted goods and waste, which were dumped into the streets, swamps, and rivers near Rome. They were all carried out to theTiber River by this drain. It used gutters to collect rainwater,rubbish, andspillage, andconduits to dispense up to ten cubic meters of water per second.[13][29]Vaults were closed with flat panels or rocks were used in the construction. This drainage used a trench wall to hold backsediments.[9]
Some of its water was stillpolluted, contaminating water many depended on forirrigation,swimming,bathing, anddrinking.[14][30] The drainage reduced the number of mosquitos, thereby limiting the spread ofmalaria by draining marshy areas.[31] Animals, including rats, could find their way into the drainage.[15]
The Cloaca Maxima was a highly valued feat ofengineering. It may have even beensacrosanct. Since the Romans viewed the movement of water to be sacred, theCloaca Maxima may have had a religious significance. Aside from religious significance, theCloaca Maxima may have been praised due to its age and its demonstration of engineering prowess.[32][33]Livy describes the sewer as:
Works for which the new splendor of these days has scarcely been able to produce a match.— Titus Livius, Titus Livius, The History of Rome, Book 1[citation needed]
The writerPliny the Elder describes theCloaca Maxima as an engineering marvel due to its ability to withstand floods of filthy waters for centuries.Cassiodorus, aRoman senator and scholar, praised the sewage system inVariae. The Cloaca Maxima was a symbol of Roman civilization, and its superiority to others.[34][35] Roman authors were not the only people to praise the Cloaca Maxima. British writerHenry James stated that it gave him: "the deepest and grimmest impression of antiquity I have ever received."[citation needed]
Venus, goddess of love, was the protector of the Cloaca Maxima. There was a small sanctuary dedicated to Venus Cloacina (Venus of the Drain) in the Forum Romanum.[36]
The system of drainage andRoman sewers was much imitated throughout the Roman Empire, especially when combined with copious supplies of water fromRoman aqueducts. The sewer system inEboracum—the modern-day English city ofYork—was especially impressive and part of it still survives.[37]
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Media related toCloaca Maxima at Wikimedia Commons
| Preceded by Aqua Claudia | Landmarks of Rome Cloaca Maxima | Succeeded by Baths of Agrippa |
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