Clergy are formal leaders within establishedreligions. Their roles and functions vary in different religious traditions, but usually involve presiding over specific rituals and teaching their religion'sdoctrines and practices. Some of the terms used for individual clergy areclergyman,clergywoman,clergyperson,churchman,cleric,ecclesiastic, andvicegerent whileclerk in holy orders has a long history but is rarely used.[citation needed]
The wordcleric comes from theecclesiastical LatinClericus, for those belonging to the priestly class. In turn, the source of the Latin word is from theEcclesiastical GreekKlerikos (κληρικός), meaning appertaining to an inheritance, in reference to the fact that theLevitical priests of theOld Testament had no inheritance except the Lord.[1] "Clergy" is from twoOld French words,clergié andclergie, which refer to those with learning and derive fromMedieval Latinclericatus, fromLate Latinclericus (the same word from which "cleric" is derived).[2] "Clerk", which used to mean one ordained to the ministry, also derives fromclericus. In the Middle Ages, reading and writing were almost exclusively the domain of the priestly class, and this is the reason for the close relationship of these words.[3] WithinChristianity, especially inEastern Christianity and formerly in WesternRoman Catholicism, the termcleric refers to any individual who has been ordained, includingdeacons,priests, andbishops.[4] InLatin Catholicism, thetonsure was a prerequisite for receiving any of theminor orders ormajor orders before the tonsure,minor orders, and thesubdiaconate were abolished following theSecond Vatican Council.[5] Now, the clerical state is tied to reception of the diaconate.[6]Minor Orders are still given in theEastern Catholic Churches, and those who receive those orders are 'minor clerics.'[7]
The use of the wordcleric is also appropriate forEastern Orthodox minor clergy who are tonsured in order not to trivialize orders such as those of Reader in theEastern Church, or for those who are tonsured yet have no minor or major orders. It is in this sense that the word entered the Arabic language, most commonly in Lebanon from the French, askleriki (or, alternatively,cleriki) meaning "seminarian". This is all in keeping with Eastern Orthodox concepts of clergy, which still include those who have not yet received, or do not plan to receive, the diaconate.
A priesthood is a body ofpriests,shamans, ororacles who have special religious authority or function. The term priest is derived from theGreekpresbyter (πρεσβύτερος,presbýteros, elder or senior), but is often used in the sense ofsacerdos in particular, i.e., for clergy performingritual within the sphere of thesacred ornuminous communicating with thegods on behalf of the community.
Buddhist clergy are often collectively referred to as theSangha, and consist of various orders of male and female monks (originally calledbhikshus andbhikshunis respectively). This diversity of monastic orders and styles was originally one community founded byGautama Buddha during the 5th century BC living under a common set of rules (called theVinaya). According to scriptural records, these celibate monks and nuns in the time of the Buddha lived an austere life of meditation, living as wandering beggars for nine months out of the year and remaining in retreat during the rainy season (although such a unified condition ofPre-sectarian Buddhism is questioned by some scholars). However, as Buddhism spread geographically over time—encountering different cultures, responding to new social, political, and physical environments—this single form of Buddhist monasticism diversified. The interaction between Buddhism and TibetanBon led to a uniquelyTibetan Buddhism, within which various sects, based upon certain teacher-student lineages arose. Similarly, the interaction between Indian Buddhist monks (particularly of the SouthernMadhyamika School) and ChineseConfucian andTaoist monks from c200-c900AD produced the distinctiveCh'an Buddhism. Ch'an, like the Tibetan style, further diversified into various sects based upon the transmission style of certain teachers (one of the most well known being the 'rapid enlightenment' style ofLinji Yixuan), as well as in response to particular political developments such as theAn Lushan Rebellion and the Buddhist persecutions ofEmperor Wuzong. In these ways, manual labour was introduced to a practice where monks originally survived on alms; layers of garments were added where originally a single thin robe sufficed; etc. This adaptation of form and roles of Buddhist monastic practice continued after the transmission to Japan. For example, monks took on administrative functions for the Emperor in particular secular communities (registering births, marriages, deaths), thereby creating Buddhist 'priests'. Again, in response to various historic attempts to suppress Buddhism (most recently during theMeiji Era), the practice of celibacy was relaxed and Japanese monks allowed to marry. This form was then transmitted toKorea, during later Japanese occupation,[8] where celibate and non-celibate monks today exist in the same sects. (Similar patterns can also be observed in Tibet during various historic periods multiple forms of monasticism have co-existed such as "ngagpa" lamas, and times at which celibacy was relaxed). As these varied styles of Buddhist monasticism are transmitted to Western cultures, still more new forms are being created.
In general, theMahayana schools of Buddhism tend to be more culturally adaptive and innovative with forms, whileTheravada schools (the form generally practiced inThailand,Burma,Cambodia, andSri Lanka) tend to take a much more conservative view of monastic life, and continue to observe precepts that forbid monks from touching women or working in certain secular roles. This broad difference in approach led to a major schism among Buddhist monastics in about the 4th century BCE, creating theEarly Buddhist Schools.
While female monastic (bhikkhuni) lineages existed in most Buddhist countries at one time, theTheravada lineages of Southeast Asia died out during the 14th-15th Century AD. As there is some debate about whether the bhikkhuni lineage (in the more expansive Vinaya forms) was transmitted to Tibet, the status and future of female Buddhist clergy in this tradition is sometimes disputed by strict adherents to the Theravadan style. Some Mahayana sects, notably in the United States (such asSan Francisco Zen Center) are working to reconstruct the female branches of what they consider a common, interwoven lineage.[9]
The diversity of Buddhist traditions makes it difficult to generalize about Buddhist clergy. In the United States,Pure Land priests of the Japanese diaspora serve a role very similar to Protestant ministers of the Christian tradition. Meanwhile, reclusive Theravada forest monks in Thailand live a life devoted to meditation and the practice of austerities in small communities in rural Thailand- a very different life from even their city-dwelling counterparts, who may be involved primarily in teaching, the study of scripture, and the administration of the nationally organized (and government sponsored) Sangha. In the Zen traditions of China, Korea and Japan, manual labor is an important part of religious discipline; meanwhile, in the Theravada tradition, prohibitions against monks working as laborers and farmers continue to be generally observed.
Currently in North America, there are both celibate and non-celibate clergy in a variety of Buddhist traditions from around the world. In some cases they are forest dwelling monks of the Theravada tradition and in other cases they are married clergy of a Japanese Zen lineage and may work a secular job in addition to their role in the Buddhist community. There is also a growing realization that traditional training in ritual and meditation as well as philosophy may not be sufficient to meet the needs and expectations of American lay people. Some communities have begun exploring the need for training in counseling skills as well. Along these lines, at least two fully accredited Master of Divinity programs are currently available: one atNaropa University in Boulder, CO and one at the University of the West in Rosemead, CA.
In general, Christian clergy areordained; that is, they are set apart for specificministry in religious rites. Others who have definite roles in worship but who are not ordained (e.g.,laypeople acting asacolytes) are generally not considered clergy, even though they may require some sort of official approval to exercise these ministries.
Types of clerics are distinguished from offices, even when the latter are commonly or exclusively occupied by clerics. A Roman Catholic cardinal, for instance, is almost without exception a cleric, but a cardinal is not a type of cleric. An archbishop is not a distinct type of cleric, but is simply a bishop who occupies a particular position with special authority. Conversely, a youth minister at aparish may or may not be a cleric. Different churches have different systems of clergy, though churches with similarpolity have similar systems.
InAnglicanism, clergy consist of the orders ofdeacons,priests (presbyters), andbishops in ascending order of seniority.Canon,archdeacon,archbishop and the like are specific positions within these orders. Bishops are typically overseers, presiding over adiocese composed of manyparishes, with an archbishop presiding over aprovince in most, which is a group of dioceses. A parish (generally a single church) is looked after by one or more priests, although one priest may be responsible for several parishes. New clergy are first ordained as deacons. Those seeking to become priests are usually ordained to the priesthood around a year later. Since the 1960s some Anglican churches have reinstituted the permanent diaconate, in addition to the transitional diaconate, as a ministry focused on bridges the church and the world, especially ministry to those on the margins of society.
For a short period of history before the ordination of women as deacons, priests and bishops began within Anglicanism, women could bedeaconesses. Although they were usually considered having a ministry distinct from deacons they often had similar ministerial responsibilities.
In Anglicanism all clergy are permitted to marry. In most national churches women may become deacons or priests, but while fifteen out of 38 national churches allow for the consecration of women as bishops, only five have ordained any. Celebration of theEucharist is reserved for priests and bishops.
Being a deacon, priest or bishop is considered a function of the person and not a job. When priests retire they are still priests even if they no longer have any active ministry. However, they only hold the basic rank after retirement. Thus a retired archbishop can only be considered a bishop (though it is possible to refer to "Bishop John Smith, the former Archbishop of York"), a canon or archdeacon is a priest on retirement and does not hold any additional honorifics.
TheBaptist tradition only recognizes two ordained positions in the church as being the elders (pastors) and deacons as outlined in the third chapter of I Timothy[10] in the Bible.
Ordained clergy in theCatholic Church are either deacons, priests, or bishops belonging to the diaconate, the presbyterate, or the episcopate, respectively. Among bishops, some aremetropolitans,archbishops, orpatriarchs. Thepope is thebishop of Rome, the supreme and universal hierarch of the Church, and his authorization is now required for the ordination of all Roman Catholic bishops. With rare exceptions,cardinals are bishops, although it was not always so; formerly, some cardinals were people who had receivedclerical tonsure, but notHoly Orders.Secular clergy are ministers, such as deacons and priests, who do not belong to a religious institute and live in the world at large, rather than a religious institute (saeculum). TheHoly See supports the activity of its clergy by theCongregation for the Clergy ([1]), adicastery ofRoman curia.
Canon Law indicates (canon 207) that "[b]y divine institution, there are among the Christian faithful in the Church sacred ministers who in law are also called clerics; the other members of the Christian faithful are called lay persons".[11] This distinction of a separate ministry was formed in the early times of Christianity; one early source reflecting this distinction, with the three ranks or orders ofbishop,priest anddeacon, is the writings of SaintIgnatius of Antioch.
Holy Orders is one of theSeven Sacraments, enumerated at theCouncil of Trent, that the Magisterium considers to be of divine institution. In the Catholic Church, only men are permitted to be clerics.[12]
In theLatin Church before 1972,tonsure admitted someone to the clerical state, after which he could receive the fourminor orders (ostiary,lectorate, order of exorcists, order of acolytes) and then themajor orders (subdiaconate,diaconate,presbyterate, and finally theepiscopate), which according to Roman Catholic doctrine is "the fullness of Holy Orders". Since 1972 the minor orders and the subdiaconate have been replaced bylay ministries and clerical tonsure no longer takes place, except in someTraditionalist Catholic groups, and the clerical state is acquired, even in those groups, by Holy Orders.[13] In the Latin Church the initial level of the three ranks of Holy Orders is that of the diaconate. In addition to these three orders of clerics, someEastern Catholic, or "Uniate", Churches have what are called "minor clerics".[14]
Current canon law prescribes that to be ordained a priest, an education is required of two years ofphilosophy and four oftheology, including study of dogmatic and moral theology, the Holy Scriptures, and canon law have to be studied within aseminary or an ecclesiastical faculty at a university.[17][18]
Clerical celibacy is a requirement for almost all clergy in the predominant Latin Church, with the exception of deacons who do not intend to become priests. Exceptions are sometimes admitted for ordination to transitional diaconate and priesthood on a case-by-case basis for married clergymen of other churches or communities who become Catholics, but consecration of already married men asbishops is excluded in both the Latin andEastern Catholic Churches (seepersonal ordinariate).Clerical marriage is not allowed and therefore, if those for whom in someparticular Church celibacy is optional (such as permanent deacons in the Latin Church) wish to marry, they must do so before ordination. Eastern Catholic Churches while allowing married men to be ordained, do not allowclerical marriage after ordination: theirparish priests are often married, but must marry before being ordained to the priesthood.[19]Eastern Catholic Churches require celibacy only for bishops.
Within each of these three ranks there are found a number of titles. Bishops may have the title ofarchbishop,metropolitan, andpatriarch, all of which are consideredhonorifics. Among the Orthodox, all bishops are considered equal, though an individual may have a place of higher or lower honor, and each has his place within theorder of precedence. Priests (also calledpresbyters) may (or may not) have the title ofarchpriest,protopresbyter (also called "protopriest", or "protopope"),hieromonk (amonk who has been ordained to the priesthood)archimandrite (a senior hieromonk) andhegumen (abbot). Deacons may have the title ofhierodeacon (a monk who has been ordained to the deaconate),archdeacon orprotodeacon.
The lower clergy are not ordained throughcheirotonia (laying on of hands) but through a blessing known ascheirothesia (setting-aside). These clerical ranks aresubdeacon,reader andaltar server (also known astaper-bearer). Some churches have a separate service for the blessing of acantor.
Ordination of a bishop, priest, deacon or subdeacon must be conferred during theDivine Liturgy (Eucharist)—though in some churches it is permitted to ordain up through deacon during theLiturgy of the Presanctified Gifts—and no more than a single individual can be ordained to the same rank in any one service. Numerous members of the lower clergy may be ordained at the same service, and their blessing usually takes place during theLittle Hours prior to Liturgy, or may take place as a separate service. The blessing of readers and taper-bearers is usually combined into a single service. Subdeacons are ordained during the Little Hours, but the ceremonies surrounding his blessing continue through the Divine Liturgy, specifically during theGreat Entrance.
Bishops are usually drawn from the ranks of the archimandrites, and are required to be celibate; however, a non-monastic priest may be ordained to the episcopate if he no longer lives with his wife (following Canon XII of theQuinisext Council of Trullo)[20] In contemporary usage such a non-monastic priest is usuallytonsured to the monastic state, and then elevated to archimandrite, at some point prior to his consecration to the episcopacy. Although not a formal or canonical prerequisite, at present bishops are often required to have earned a university degree, typically but not necessarily intheology.
Usual titles areYour Holiness for a patriarch (withYour All-Holiness reserved for theEcumenical Patriarch of Constantinople),Your Beatitude for an archbishop/metropolitan overseeing anautocephalous Church,Your Eminence for an archbishop/metropolitan generally,Master orYour Grace for a bishop andFather for priests, deacons and monks,[21] although there are variations between the various Orthodox Churches. For instance, in Churches associated with the Greek tradition, while the Ecumenical Patriarch is addressed as "Your All-Holiness", all other Patriarchs (and archbishops/metropolitans who oversee autocephalous Churches) are addressed as "Your Beatitude".[22]
Orthodox priests, deacons, and subdeacons must be either married or celibate (preferably monastic) prior to ordination, but may not marry after ordination.Remarriage of clergy following divorce or widowhood is forbidden. Married clergy are considered as best-suited to staff parishes, as a priest with a family is thought better qualified to counsel his flock.[23] It has been common practice in the Russian tradition for unmarried, non-monastic clergy to occupy academic posts.
In theMethodist churches, candidates for ordination are "licensed" to the ministry for a period of time (typically one to three years) prior to being ordained.[24] This period typically is spent performing the duties of ministry under the guidance, supervision, and evaluation of a more senior, ordained minister. In some denominations, however, licensure is a permanent, rather than a transitional state for ministers assigned to certain specialized ministries, such as music ministry or youth ministry.
The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church) has no dedicated clergy, and is governed instead by a system of lay priesthood leaders. Locally, unpaid and part-timepriesthood holders lead the church; the worldwide church is supervised by full-timegeneral authorities, some of whom receive modest living allowances.[25][26] No formal theological training is required for any position. The church believes that all of its leaders are called byrevelation and thelaying on of hands by one who holds authority. The church also believes thatJesus Christ stands at the head of the church and leads the church through revelation given to thePresident of the Church, theFirst Presidency, andTwelve Apostles, all of whom are recognized asprophets, seers, and revelators and have lifetime tenure. Below these men in the hierarchy arequorums ofseventy, which are assigned geographically over theareas of the church. Locally, the church is divided intostakes; each stake has apresident, who is assisted by two counselors and ahigh council. The stake is made up of several individual congregations, which are called "wards" or "branches". Wards are led by abishop and his counselors and branches by apresident and his counselors. Local leaders serve in their positions until released by their supervising authorities.[27]
Generally, all worthy males age 12 and above receive thepriesthood. Youth age 12 to 18 are ordained to theAaronic priesthood asdeacons,teachers, orpriests, which authorizes them to perform certainordinances and sacraments. Adult males are ordained to theMelchizedek priesthood, aselders, seventies,high priests, orpatriarchs in that priesthood, which is concerned with spiritual leadership of the church. Although the term "clergy" is not typically used in the LDS Church, it would most appropriately apply to local bishops and stake presidents. Merely holding an office in the priesthood does not imply authority over other church members or agency to act on behalf of the entire church.
Lutheran pastor confirming the youth of his congregation.
From a religious standpoint there is only one order of clergy in the Lutheran church, namely the office ofpastor. This is stated in theAugsburg Confession, article 14.[28] Some Lutheran churches, like the state churches of Scandinavia, refer to this office aspriest.
However, for practical and historical reasons, Lutheran churches tend to have different roles of pastors or priests, and a clear hierarchy. Some pastors are functioning asdeacons or provosts, others as parish priests and yet some asbishops and evenarchbishops. Lutherans have no principal aversion against having a pope as the leading bishop. But the Roman Catholic view of the papacy is considered antichristian.[29]
In many European churches where Lutheranism was thestate religion, the clergy were alsocivil servants, and their responsibilities extended well beyond spiritual leadership, encompassing government administration, education, and the implementation of government policies. Government administration was organized around the church's parishes. In rural parishes the parish priest tended to be the foremost government official. In more important parishes or cities a bishop or governor would outrank parish priests.
ThePresbyterian Church (USA) ordains two types ofpresbyters or elders, teaching (pastor) and ruling (leaders of the congregation which form a council with the pastors). Teaching elders are seminary trained and ordained as a presbyter and set aside on behalf of the whole denomination to the ministry of Word and Sacrament. Ordinarily, teaching elders are installed by a presbytery as pastor of a congregation. Ruling elders, after receiving training, may be commissioned by a presbytery to serve as a pastor of a congregation, as well as preach and administer sacraments.[31]
InCongregationalist churches, local churches are free to hire (and often ordain) their own clergy, although the parent denominations typically maintain lists of suitable candidates seeking appointment to local church ministries and encourage local churches to consider these individuals when filling available positions.
ABrahmachari is a person initiated into monasticism. He is a trainee and his duty is to learn and preach scriptures to people. Female initiate is called Brahmacharini.[34]
Traditionally, priests have predominantly come from the Brahmana class, whose male members are designated for the function in theHindu texts.[35][36]
Hindu priests are known to perform prayer services, often referred to aspuja. Priests are identified aspandits orpujaris amongst the devotees.[37]Braja Kishore Goswami "Yuvaaraj" is one such famous spiritual leader of the Hindu religion.
Islam, likeJudaism, has no clergy in thesacerdotal sense; there is no institution resembling the Christian priesthood. Islamic religious leaders do not "serve as intermediaries between mankind and God",[38] have "process of ordination",[39] nor "sacramental functions".[38] They have been said to resemble more rabbis, serving as "exemplars, teachers, judges, and community leaders", providing religious rules to the pious on "even the most minor and private" matters.[38]
The titlemullah (a Persian variation of the Arabicmaula, "master"), commonly translated "cleric" in the West and thought to be analogous to "priest" or "rabbi", is a title of address for any educated or respected figure, not even necessarily (though frequently) religious. The titlesheikh ("elder") is used similarly.
Most of the religious titles associated with Islam are scholastic or academic in nature: they recognize the holder's exemplary knowledge of the theory and practice ofad-dín (religion), and do not confer any particular spiritual or sacerdotal authority. The most general such title is`alim (pl.`ulamah), or "scholar". This word describes someone engaged in advanced study of the traditional Islamic sciences(`ulum) at an Islamic university ormadrasah jami`ah. A scholar's opinions may be valuable to others because of his/her knowledge in religious matters; but such opinions should not generally be considered binding, infallible, or absolute, as the individual Muslim is directly responsible to God for his or her own religious beliefs and practice.
There is no sacerdotal office corresponding to the Christian priest or Jewishkohen, as there is no sacrificial rite of atonement comparable to theEucharist or theKorban.Ritual slaughter ordhabihah, including thequrban at`Idu l-Ad'ha, may be performed by any adult Muslim who is physically able and properly trained. Professional butchers may be employed, but they are not necessary; in the case of thequrban, it is especially preferable to slaughter one's own animal if possible.[40]
ASunni jurist (mufti) delivering a sermon from a pulpit
The nearest analogue among Sunni Muslims to the parish priest or pastor, or to the "pulpitrabbi" of a synagogue, is called theimam khatib. This compound title is merely a common combination of two elementary offices: leader(imam) of the congregational prayer, which in most mosques is performed at the times of all daily prayers; and preacher(khatib) of the sermon orkhutba of the obligatory congregational prayer at midday every Friday. Although either duty can be performed by anyone who is regarded as qualified by the congregation, at most well-established mosquesimam khatib is a permanent part-time or full-time position. He may be elected by the local community, or appointed by an outside authority—e.g., the national government, or thewaqf that sustains the mosque. There is no ordination as such; the only requirement for appointment as animam khatib is recognition as someone of sufficient learning and virtue to perform both duties on a regular basis, and to instruct the congregation in the basics of Islam.
The titlehafiz (lit. "preserver") is awarded to one who has memorized the entire Qur'an, often by attending a special course for the purpose; theimam khatib of a mosque is frequently (though not always) ahafiz.
There are several specialist offices pertaining to the study and administration of Islamic law orshari`ah. A scholar with a specialty infiqh or jurisprudence is known as afaqih. Aqadi is a judge in an Islamic court. Amufti is a scholar who has completed an advanced course of study which qualifies him to issue judicial opinions orfatawah.
IranianShi'a scholar and author Sheikh Ali Akbar Nahavandi.
In modernShia Islam, scholars play a more prominent role in the daily lives of Muslims than in Sunni Islam; and there is a hierarchy of higher titles of scholastic authority, such asAyatollah. Traditionally a more complex title has been used inTwelver Shi`ism, namelymarjaʿ at-taqlid.Marjaʿ (pl.marajiʿ ) means "source", andtaqlid refers to religious emulation or imitation. Lay Shi`ah must identify a specificmarjaʿ whom they emulate, according to his legal opinions(fatawah) or other writings. On several occasions, theMarjaʿiyyat (community of allmarajiʿ ) has been limited to a single individual, in which case his rulings have been applicable to all those living in the Twelver Shi'ah world. Of broader importance has been the role of themujtahid, a cleric of superior knowledge who has the authority to performijtihad (independent judgment). Mujtahids are few in number, but it is from their ranks that themarajiʿ at-taqlid are drawn. However these titles are more related to scholarly rank and piety than a hierarchy like that of a priesthood.
The spiritual guidance function known in many Christian denominations as "pastoral care" is fulfilled for many Muslims by amurshid ("guide"), a master of the spiritual sciences and disciplines known astasawuf orSufism. Sufi guides are commonly styledShaikh in both speaking and writing; in North Africa they are sometimes calledmarabouts. They are traditionally appointed by their predecessors, in an unbroken teaching lineage reaching back toMuhammad. (The lineal succession of guides bears a superficial similarity to Christian ordination and apostolic succession, or to Buddhist dharma transmission; but a Sufi guide is regarded primarily as a specialized teacher and Islam denies the existence of an earthly hierarchy among believers.)
Muslims who wish to learn Sufism dedicate themselves to amurshid's guidance by taking an oath called abai'ah. The aspirant is then known as amurid ("disciple" or "follower"). Amurid who takes on special disciplines under the guide's instruction, ranging from an intensive spiritual retreat to voluntary poverty and homelessness, is sometimes known as adervish.
During theIslamic Golden Age, it was common for scholars to attain recognized mastery of both the "exterior sciences"(`ulum az-zahir) of the madrasahs as well as the "interior sciences"(`ulum al-batin) of Sufism.Al-Ghazali andRumi are two notable examples.
The highest office an Ahmadi can hold is that ofKhalifatu l-Masih. Such a person may appoint amirs who manage regional areas.[41] The consultative body for Ahmadiyya is called theMajlis-i-Shura, which ranks second in importance to theKhalifatu l-Masih.[42] However, the Ahmadiyya community is declared asnon-Muslims by many mainstream Muslims and they reject the messianic claims of Mirza Ghulam Ahmad.
RabbiMoshe Feinstein, a leading Rabbinical authority for Orthodox Jewry
Rabbinic Judaism does not have clergy as such, although according to theTorah there is a tribe of priests known as theKohanim who were leaders of the religion up to thedestruction of the Temple of Jerusalem in 70 AD when mostSadducees were wiped out; each member of the tribe, a Kohen had priestly duties, many of which centered around the sacrificial duties, atonement and blessings of the Israelite nation. Today, Jewish Kohanim know their status by family tradition, and still offer the priestly blessing during certain services in the synagogue and perform thePidyon haben (redemption of the first-born son) ceremony.
Since the time of the destruction of the Temple of Jerusalem, the religious leaders of Judaism have often beenrabbis, who are technically scholars in Jewish law empowered to act as judges in arabbinical court. All types of Judaism except Orthodox Judaism allow women as well as men to be ordained as rabbis andcantors.[43][44] The leadership of a Jewish congregation is, in fact, in the hands of the laity: the president of a synagogue is its actual leader and any adult male Jew (or adult Jew in non-traditional congregations) can lead prayer services. The rabbi is not an occupation found in the Torah; the first time this word is mentioned is in theMishnah. The modern form of the rabbi developed in theTalmudic era. Rabbis are given authority to make interpretations ofJewish law and custom. Traditionally, a man obtains one of three levels ofSemicha (rabbinic ordination) after the completion of an arduous learning program in Torah,Tanakh (Hebrew Bible), Mishnah and Talmud,Midrash, Jewish ethics and lore, the codes ofJewish law andresponsa,theology andphilosophy.
Since the early medieval era an additional communal role, theHazzan (cantor) has existed as well. Cantors have sometimes been the only functionaries of a synagogue, empowered to undertake religio-civil functions like witnessing marriages. Cantors do provide leadership of actual services, primarily because of their training and expertise in the music and prayer rituals pertaining to them, rather than because of any spiritual or "sacramental" distinction between them and the laity. Cantors as much as rabbis have been recognized by civil authorities in the United States as clergy for legal purposes, mostly for awarding education degrees and their ability to perform weddings, and certify births and deaths.
Additionally, Jewish authorities licensemohalim, people specially trained by experts in Jewish law and usually also by medical professionals to perform the ritual of circumcision.[46] Traditional Orthodox Judaism does not generally license women as mohelot, unless a Jewish male expert is absent, but other movements of Judaism do. They are appropriately calledmohelot (pl. ofmohelet, f. of mohel).[46] As thej., the Jewish News Weekly of Northern California, states, "...there is no halachic prescription against female mohels, [but] none exist in the Orthodox world, where the preference is that the task be undertaken by a Jewish man".[46] In many places, mohalim are also licensed by civil authorities, as circumcision is technically a surgical procedure. Kohanim, who must avoid contact with dead human body parts (such as the removed foreskin) for ritual purity, cannot act as mohalim,[47] but some mohalim are also either rabbis or cantors.
Another licensed cleric in Judaism is theshochet, who are trained and licensed by religious authorities forkosher slaughter according to ritual law. A Kohen may be a shochet. Most shochetim are ordained rabbis.[48]
Then there is themashgiach/mashgicha.Mashgichim are observant Jews who supervise thekashrut status of a kosher establishment. Themashgichim must know the Torah laws ofkashrut, and how they apply in the environment they are supervising. This can vary. In many instances, themashgiach/mashgicha is a rabbi. This helps, since rabbinical students learn the laws of kosher as part of their syllabus. However, not allmashgichim are rabbis, and not all rabbis are qualified to bemashgichim.
In contemporary Orthodox Judaism, women are usually forbidden from becoming rabbis or cantors.[49] Most Orthodox rabbinical seminaries or yeshivas also require dedication of many years to education, but few require a formal degree from a civil education institution that often define Christian clergy. Training is often focused on Jewish law, and some Orthodox Yeshivas forbid secular education.
InHasidic Judaism, generally understood as a branch of Orthodox Judaism, there are dynastic spiritual leaders known asRebbes, often translated in English as "Grand Rabbi". The office of Rebbe is generally a hereditary one, but may also be passed from Rebbe to student or by recognition of a congregation conferring a sort of coronation to their new Rebbe. Although one does not need to be an ordained Rabbi to be a Rebbe, most Rebbes today are ordained Rabbis. Since one does not need to be an ordained rabbi to be a Rebbe, at some points in history there were female Rebbes as well, particularly theMaiden of Ludmir.
InConservative Judaism, both men and women are ordained as rabbis and cantors. Conservative Judaism differs with Orthodoxy in that it sees Jewish Law as binding but also as subject to many interpretations, including more liberal interpretations. Academic requirements for becoming a rabbi are rigorous. First earn a bachelor's degree before entering rabbinical school. Studies are mandated in pastoral care and psychology, the historical development of Judaism and most importantly the academic study of Bible, Talmud andrabbinic literature, philosophy and theology, liturgy, Jewish history, and Hebrew literature of all periods.
Reconstructionist Judaism andReform Judaism do not maintain the traditional requirements for study as rooted in Jewish Law and traditionalist text. Both men and women may be rabbis or cantors. The rabbinical seminaries of these movements hold that one must first earn a bachelor's degree before entering the rabbinate. In addition studies are mandated in pastoral care and psychology, the historical development of Judaism; and academic biblical criticism. Emphasis is placed not on Jewish law, but rather on sociology, modern Jewish philosophy, theology and pastoral care.
Sikh clergy consists of fiveJathedars, one each from fivetakhts or sacred seats. TheJathedars are appointed by theShiromani Gurdwara Parbandhak Committee (SGPC), an elected body of the Sikhs sometimes called the "Parliament of Sikhs". The highest seat of the Sikh religion is calledAkal Takht and theJathedar ofAkal Takht makes all the important decisions after consultations with theJathedars of the other fourtakhts and the SGPC.
Historicallytraditional (orpagan) religions typically combine religious authority and political power. What this means is that thesacred king or queen is therefore seen to combine both kingship and priesthood within his or her person, even though he or she is often aided by an actual high priest or priestess (see, for example, theMaya priesthood). When the functions of political ruler and religious leader are combined in this way,deification could be seen to be the next logical stage of his or her social advancement within his or her native environment, as is found in the case of the EgyptianPharaohs. TheVedic priesthood of India is an early instance of a structured body of clergy organized as a separate and hereditary caste, one that occupied the highest social rung of its nation. A modern example of this phenomenon the priestly monarchs of theYoruba holy city ofIle-Ife inNigeria, whose reigningOnis have performed ritual ceremonies for centuries for the sustenance of the entire planet and its people.
In recent years, studies have suggested that American clergy in certainProtestant,Evangelical andJewish traditions are more at risk than the general population of obesity, hypertension and depression.[50][51] Their life expectancies have fallen as of 2010, and their use of antidepressants has risen.[52] Several religious bodies in the United States (Methodist,Episcopal,Baptist andLutheran) have implemented measures to address the issue, throughwellness campaigns, for example—but also by simply ensuring that clergy take more time off.
It is unclear whether similar symptoms affect AmericanMuslim clerics, although an anecdotal comment by one American imam suggested that leaders of mosques may also share these problems.[53]
One exception to the findings of these studies is the case of AmericanCatholic priests, who are required bycanon law to take a spiritual retreat each year, and four weeks of vacation.[54] Sociological studies at theUniversity of Chicago have confirmed this exception; the studies also took the results of several earlier studies into consideration and included Roman Catholic priests nationwide.[55] It remains unclear whether American clergy in other religious traditions experience the same symptoms, or whether clergy outside the United States are similarly affected.[citation needed]
^Presbyterian Church (USA).Book of Order: 2009-2011 (Louisville: Office of the General Assembly), Form of Government, Chapter 6 and 14. See also"Theology and Worship"(PDF). Archived fromthe original(PDF) on 2004-03-07.
^www.wisdomlib.org (2018-09-23)."Arcaka: 11 definitions".www.wisdomlib.org.Archived from the original on 2022-09-28. Retrieved2022-09-28.
^"The Cantor".myjewishlearning.com. My Jewish Learning. Archived fromthe original on 27 September 2010. Retrieved3 September 2013.
^Klapheck, Elisa."Regina Jonas".The Shalvi/Hyman Encyclopedia of Jewish Women. Jewish Women's Archive.Archived from the original on April 21, 2019. RetrievedAugust 30, 2021 – via jwa.org.
^abc"Making the cut".j., the Jewish News Weekly of Northern California. 3 March 2006.Archived from the original on 25 October 2012. Retrieved3 September 2013 – via jweekly.com.
^Grandin, Temple (1980)."Problems With Kosher Slaughter".International Journal for the Study of Animal Problems.1 (6):375–390.Archived from the original on 2017-01-18. Retrieved2017-01-17 – via The Humane Society of the United States.
Ruether, Rosemary Radford. "Should Women Want Women Priests or Women-Church?".Feminist Theology 20.1 (2011): 63–72.
Tucker, Ruth A. and Walter L. Liefeld.Daughters of the Church: Women and Ministry from New Testament Times to the Present (1987), historical survey of female Christian clergy
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