As he had a limp, a stammer, and a tremor due to an illness he suffered when young, he was ostracized by his family and was excluded from public office until hisconsulship (which was shared with his nephew,Caligula, in 37). Claudius's infirmity probably saved him from the fate of many other nobles during the purges throughout the reigns ofTiberius and Caligula, as potential enemies did not see him as a serious threat. His survival led to him being declared emperor by thePraetorian Guard after Caligula's assassination, at which point he was the last adult male of his family.
Despite his lack of experience, Claudius was an able and efficient administrator. He expanded the imperial bureaucracy to include freedmen, and helped restore the empire's finances after the excesses of Caligula's reign. He was also an ambitious builder, constructing new roads, aqueducts, and canals across the Empire. During his reign, the Empire started its successfulconquest of Britain. Having a personal interest inlaw, he presided at public trials, and issued edicts daily. He was seen as vulnerable throughout his reign, particularly by elements of the nobility. Claudius was constantly forced to shore up his position, which resulted in the deaths of manysenators. Those events damaged his reputation among the ancient writers, though more recent historians have revised that opinion. Many authors contend that he was murdered by his own wife,Agrippina the Younger. After his death at the age of 63, his grandnephew andlegally adopted step-son,Nero, succeeded him as emperor.
As a consequence ofRoman customs, society, and personal preference, Claudius's full name varied throughout his life:
Tiberius Claudius D. f. Ti. n. Drusus, the cognomenDrusus being inherited from hisfather as his brotherGermanicus, as the eldest son, inherited the cognomenNero when their uncle the future EmperorTiberius was adopted byAugustus into theJulii Caesares and the victory name (agnomen)Germanicus from their father.[1]
Tiberius Claudius D. f. Ti. n. Nero, the cognomenNero devolved to Claudius as the head of theClaudii Nerones after his elder brother was adopted byTiberius as required byAugustus into theJulii Caesares in AD 9. Germanicus kept the victory titleGermanicus as a praenomen, becoming Germanicus Julius Caesar. His son,Caligula, was known as Gaius Julius Caesar Germanicus, keeping the victory title, and later was known as Gaius Caesar Augustus Germanicus. Some authorities consider that his full name may have been Tiberius Claudius Drusus Nero Germanicus.[c]
Tiberius Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus While Claudius had never been formally adopted either by Augustus or his successors, he was nevertheless the grandson of Augustus's sister Octavia, and so he felt that he had the right of family. He also adopted the name "Augustus" as the two previous emperors had done at their accessions. He kept the honorific "Germanicus" to display the connection with his heroic brother and father. He deified his paternal grandmother Livia to highlight her position as wife of the divine Augustus. Claudius frequently used the term "filius Drusi" (son of Drusus) in his titles, to remind the people of his legendary father and lay claim to his reputation.[6]
Busts of Nero Claudius Drusus and Antonia Minor, Claudius's parents
Claudius was born on 1 August 10 BC atLugdunum (modernLyon, France). He had two older siblings,Germanicus andLivilla. His mother,Antonia Minor, may have had two other children who died young. Claudius's maternal grandparents wereMark Antony andOctavia Minor,Augustus's sister, and he was therefore the great-great-grandnephew ofGaius Julius Caesar. His paternal grandparents wereLivia, Augustus's third wife, andTiberius Claudius Nero. During his reign, Claudius revived the rumour that his fatherNero Claudius Drusus was actually the illegitimate son of Augustus, to give the appearance that Augustus was Claudius's paternal grandfather.
In 9 BC, Claudius's father Drusus died on campaign in Germania from a fall from a horse. Claudius was then raised by his mother, who never remarried. When his disability became evident, the relationship with his family turned sour. Antonia referred to him as a monster, and used him as a standard for stupidity. She seems to have passed her son off to his grandmother Livia for a number of years.[7]
Livia was a little kinder, but nevertheless sent Claudius short, angry letters of reproof. He was put under the care of a former mule-driver[8] to keep him disciplined, under the logic that his condition was due to laziness and a lack of willpower. However, by the time he reached his teenage years, his symptoms apparently waned and his family began to take some notice of his scholarly interests. In AD 7,Livy was hired to tutor Claudius in history, with the assistance of Sulpicius Flavus. He spent a lot of his time with the latter, as well as the philosopherAthenodorus. Augustus, according to a letter, was surprised at the clarity of Claudius's oratory.[9]
Claudius's work as a historian damaged his prospects for advancement in public life. According to Vincent Scramuzza and others, he began work on a history of theCivil Wars that was either too truthful or too critical of Octavian,[10] then reigning asCaesar Augustus. In either case, it was far too early for such an account, and may have only served to remind Augustus that Claudius was Antony's descendant. His mother and grandmother quickly put a stop to it, and this may have convinced them that Claudius was not fit for public office, since he could not be trusted to toe the existingparty line.[11]
When Claudius returned to the narrative later in life, he skipped over the wars of theSecond Triumvirate altogether; but the damage was done, and his family pushed him into the background. When theArch ofPavia was erected to honour the Imperial clan in AD 8, Claudius's name (now Tiberius Claudius Nero Germanicus after his elevation topater familias of the Claudii Nerones on the adoption of his brother) was inscribed on the edge, past the deceased princes,Gaius andLucius, and Germanicus's children. There is some speculation that the inscription was added by Claudius himself decades later, and that he originally did not appear at all.[11]
When Augustus died in AD 14, Claudius – then aged 23 – appealed to his uncleTiberius to allow him to begin thecursus honorum. Tiberius, the new Emperor, responded by granting Claudius consular ornaments. Claudius requested office once more and was snubbed. Since the new emperor was no more generous than the old, Claudius gave up hope of public office and retired to a scholarly, private life.
Despite the disdain of the Imperial family, it seems that from very early on the general public respected Claudius. At Augustus's death, theequites, or knights, chose Claudius to head their delegation. When his house burned down, the Senate demanded it be rebuilt at public expense. They also requested that Claudius be allowed to debate in the Senate. Tiberius turned down both motions, but the sentiment remained.
During the period immediately after the death of Tiberius's son,Drusus, Claudius was pushed by some quarters as a potential heir to the throne. This again suggests the political nature of his exclusion from public life. However, as this was also the period during which the power and terror of the commander of thePraetorian Guard,Sejanus, was at its peak, Claudius chose to downplay this possibility. After the death of Tiberius, the new emperorCaligula (the son of Claudius's brotherGermanicus) recognized Claudius to be of some use. He appointed Claudius his co-consul in 37 to emphasize the memory of Caligula's deceased father Germanicus.
Despite this, Caligula tormented his uncle: playing practical jokes, charging him enormous sums of money, humiliating him before the Senate, and the like. According toCassius Dio, Claudius became sickly and thin by the end of Caligula's reign, most likely due tostress.[12] A possible surviving portrait of Claudius from this period may support this.
Assassination of Caligula and Declaration of Claudius as Emperor (AD 41)
On 24 January 41, Caligula was assassinated in aconspiracy involvingCassius Chaerea – amilitary tribune in thePraetorian Guard – and severalsenators. There is no evidence that Claudius had a direct hand in the assassination, although it has been argued that he knew about the plot – particularly since he left the scene of the crime shortly before his nephew was murdered.[13] However, after the deaths ofCaligula's wife anddaughter, it became apparent that Cassius intended to go beyond the terms of the conspiracy and wipe out the Imperial family.[14]
Two drastically different oil paintings byLawrence Alma-Tadema of Claudius being proclaimed emperor byGratus.
In the chaos following the murder, Claudius witnessed theGerman guard cut down several uninvolved noblemen, including many of his friends. He fled to the palace to hide. According to tradition, a Praetorian namedGratus found him hiding behind a curtain and suddenly proclaimed himprinceps.[14] Claudius was spirited away to thePraetorian camp and put under their protection.
The Senate met and debated a change of government, but this devolved into an argument over which of them would be the newprinceps. When they heard of the Praetorians' claim, they demanded that Claudius be delivered to them for approval, but he refused, sensing the danger that would come with complying. Some historians, particularlyJosephus,[15] claim that Claudius was directed in his actions by theJudaean KingHerod Agrippa. However, an earlier version of events by the same ancient author downplays Agrippa's role[16] so it remains uncertain. Eventually the Senate was forced to give in. In return, Claudius granted a general amnesty, although he executed a few junior officers involved in the conspiracy.[17] The actual assassins, including Cassius Chaerea and Julius Lupus, the murderer of Caligula's wife and daughter, were put to death to ensure Claudius's own safety and as a future deterrent.[18][19]
Since Claudius was the first emperor proclaimed on the initiative of the Praetorian Guard instead of the Senate, his repute suffered at the hands of commentators (such asSeneca). Moreover, they accused him of being the first emperor to resort to bribery as a means to secure army loyalty and rewarded the soldiers of the Praetorian Guard that had elevated him with 15,000 sesterces,[20] although Tiberius and Augustus had both left gifts to the army and guard in theirwills and upon Caligula's death the same would have been expected, even if no will existed. Claudius remained grateful to the guard, issuing coins with tributes to the Praetorians in the early part of his reign.[21]
Aureus struck at theLugdunum (Lyon) mint, AD 41. The reverse commemorates the "reception of the emperor" (imperator receptus) at the Praetorian Camp and the protection thePraetorian Guard afforded him in the days following the assassination ofCaligula. Issued over a number of years in both gold and silver, these types of coins were struck to serve as part of the annual military payments Claudius had promised the Guard in return for their role in raising him to the throne. Caption: TI. CLAVD. CAESAR AVG. P. M., TR. P. / IMPER. RECEPT.
Thisdenarius emphasizes Claudius'sclemency after Caligula's murder. The depiction of the goddessPax-Nemesis, representing subdued vengeance, would be used by many later emperors; she is depicted holding aCaduceus over a serpent. Caption: TI. CLAVDIVS CAESAR AVG. P. M. TR. P. IMP. P. P. / CONSTANTIAE AVGVSTI. The letters "S C" meansenatus consultum ('decree of the senate').
Claudius took several steps to legitimize his rule against potential usurpers, most of them emphasizing his place within theJulio-Claudian family. He adopted the name "Caesar" as acognomen, as the name still carried great weight with the populace. To do so, he dropped the cognomen "Nero", which he had adopted aspater familias of the Claudii Nerones when his brother Germanicus was adopted. As Pharaoh of Egypt, Claudius adopted the royal titularyTiberios Klaudios,Autokrator Heqaheqau Meryasetptah, Kanakht Djediakhshuemakhet ("Tiberius Claudius, Emperor and ruler of rulers, beloved of Isis and Ptah, the strong bull of the stable moon on the horizon").[22]
While Claudius had never been formally adopted either by Augustus or his successors, he was nevertheless the grandson of Augustus's sister Octavia, and so he felt that he had the right of family. He also adopted the name "Augustus" as the two previous emperors had done at their accessions. He kept the honorific "Germanicus" to display the connection with his heroic brother. He deified his paternal grandmother Livia to highlight her position as wife of the divine Augustus. Claudius frequently used the term "filius Drusi" (son of Drusus) in his titles, to remind the people of his legendary father and lay claim to his reputation.[6]
Pliny the Elder noted, according to the 1938Loeb Classical Library translation by Harris Rackham, "... many people do not allow any gems in a signet-ring, and seal with the gold itself; this was a fashion invented when Claudius Cæsar was emperor."[23]
Because of the circumstances of his accession, Claudius took great pains to please theSenate. During regular sessions, the Emperor sat among the Senate body, speaking in turn. When introducing a law, he sat on a bench between the consuls in his position as holder of the power ofTribune, (the Emperor could not officially serve as a Tribune of the Plebes since he was apatrician, but this was a power taken by previous rulers, which he continued). He refused to accept all his predecessors' titles (includingImperator) at the beginning of his reign, preferring to earn them in due course. He allowed the Senate to issue its own bronze coinage for the first time since Augustus. He also restored the peaceful Imperial provinces ofMacedonia andAchaea assenatorial provinces.[24][25]
Claudius set about remodeling the Senate into a more efficient, representative body. He chided the senators about their reluctance to debate bills introduced by himself, as noted in the fragments of a surviving speech:
If you accept these proposals, Conscript Fathers, say so at once and simply, in accordance with your convictions. If you do not accept them, find alternatives, but do so here and now; or if you wish to take time for consideration, take it, provided you do not forget that you must be ready to pronounce your opinion whenever you may be summoned to meet. It ill befits the dignity of the Senate that the consul designate should repeat the phrases of the consuls word for word as his opinion, and that every one else should merely say 'I approve', and that then, after leaving, the assembly should announce 'We debated'.[26]
In 47, he assumed the office ofcensor withLucius Vitellius, which had been allowed to lapse for some time. He struck out the names of many senators andequites who no longer met qualifications, but showed respect by allowing them to resign in advance. At the same time, he sought to admit to the senate eligible men from the provinces. TheLyon Tablet preserves his speech on the admittance of Gallic senators, in which he addresses the Senate with reverence but also with criticism for their disdain of these men. He even joked about how the Senate had admitted members from beyondGallia Narbonensis (Lyon), i.e. himself.[citation needed] He also increased the number of patricians by adding new families to the dwindling number of noble lines. Here he followed the precedent ofLucius Junius Brutus andJulius Caesar.
Nevertheless, many in the Senate remained hostile to Claudius, and many plots were made on his life. This hostility carried over into the historical accounts. As a result, Claudius reduced the Senate's power for the sake of efficiency. The administration of Ostia was turned over to an Imperialprocurator after construction of the port. Administration of many of the empire's financial concerns was turned over to Imperial appointees and freedmen. This led to further resentment and suggestions that these same freedmen were ruling the Emperor.
Claudius was hardly the first emperor to usefreedmen to help with the day-to-day running of the Empire. He has however become famous for the new extents at which he made use of such men in the administration of the government, forced by the centralization of the powers of theprinceps and not wanting free-born magistrates to serve under him as if they were not peers.
The secretariat was divided into bureaus, with each being placed under the leadership of one freedman.Narcissus was the secretary of correspondence.Pallas became the secretary of the treasury.Callistus became secretary of justice. There was a fourth bureau for miscellaneous issues, which was put underPolybius until his execution for treason. The freedmen could also officially speak for the Emperor, as when Narcissus addressed the troops in Claudius's stead before theconquest of Britain.[27]
Since these were important positions, the senators were aghast at their being placed in the hands of former slaves and "well-knowneunuchs".[28] If freedmen had total control of money, letters and law, it seemed it would not be hard for them to manipulate the Emperor. This is exactly the accusation put forth by ancient sources. However, these same sources admit that the freedmen were loyal to Claudius.[27]
He had shown himself to be similarly appreciative of their help, giving them due credit for policies which they advised; but punished them with just force if they showed treacherous inclinations, as was the case of Polybius and Pallas's brother,Felix. There is no evidence that the character of Claudius's policies and edicts changed with the rise and fall of the various freedmen, suggesting that he was firmly in control throughout.
Regardless of the extent of their political power, the freedmen did manage to amass wealth through their positions. Pliny the Elder describes several of them as being richer thanCrassus, the richest man of theRepublican era.[29]
Claudius conducted a census in 48 that found 5,984,072 (adult male) Roman citizens[31] (women, children, slaves, and free adult males without Roman citizenship were not counted), an increase of around a million since the census conducted at Augustus's death. He had helped increase this number through the foundation of Roman colonies that were granted blanketcitizenship. These colonies were often made out of existing communities, especially those with elites who could rally the populace to the Roman cause. Several colonies were placed in new provinces or on the border of the Empire to secure Roman holdings as quickly as possible.
Additionally under Claudius, the Empire underwent its first major territorial expansion since the reign of Augustus. The provinces ofThrace,Noricum,Lycia, andJudea wereannexed (or put under direct rule) under various circumstances during his term. The annexation ofMauretania, begun under Caligula, was completed after the defeat of rebel forces, as well as the official division of the former client kingdom into two Imperial provinces.[32][33]
The most far-reaching conquest however was that of Britannia:[34] In 43, Claudius sentAulus Plautius with fourlegions to Britain (Britannia) after an appeal from an ousted tribal ally. Britain was an attractive target for Rome because of its mines and the potential of slave labor, as well as being a haven forGallic rebels. Claudius himself traveled to the island after the completion of initial offensives, bringing with him reinforcements.[citation needed] Although it has been claimed that Claudius brought elephants with him to Britain, this claim has been doubted.[35][36] The Romancolonia ofColonia Claudia Victricensis was established as the provincial capital of the newly establishedprovince of Britannia atCamulodunum, where a largetemple was dedicated in his honour.
He left Britain after 16 days, but remained in the provinces for some time. The Senate granted him atriumph for his efforts. Only members of the Imperial family were allowed such honours, but Claudius subsequently lifted this restriction for some of his conquering generals. He was granted the honorific "Britannicus" but only accepted it on behalf of his son, never using the title himself. When the British generalCaractacus was captured in 50, Claudius granted him clemency. Caractacus lived out his days on land provided by the Roman state, an unusual end for an enemy commander.
Claudius embarked on many public works throughout his reign, both in the capital and in the provinces. He built or finished twoaqueducts, theAqua Claudia, begun by Caligula, and theAqua Anio Novus.[37] These entered the city in 52 and met at thePorta Maggiore. He also restored a third, theAqua Virgo.
He paid special attention to transportation. Throughout Italy and the provinces he built roads and canals. Among these was a large canal leading from theRhine to the sea, as well asa road from Italy to Germany – both begun by his father,Drusus. Closer to Rome, he built a navigable canal on theTiber, leading toPortus, his new port just north ofOstia. This port was constructed in a semicircle with twomoles and a lighthouse at its mouth, reducing flooding in Rome.
The port at Ostia was part of Claudius's solution to the constant grain shortages that occurred in winter, after the Roman shipping season. The other part of his solution was toinsure the ships of grain merchants who were willing to risk travelling to Egypt in the off-season. He also granted their sailors special privileges, including citizenship and exemption from theLex Papia Poppaea, a law that regulated marriage. In addition, he repealed the taxes that Caligula had instituted on food, and further reduced taxes on communities suffering drought orfamine.
The last part of Claudius's plan to avoid famine was to increase the amount of arable land in Italy. This was to be achieved by draining theFucine lake, also making the nearby river navigable year-round.[38][39] A serious famine is mentioned in thebook of Acts as taking place during Claudius's reign, and had been prophesied by a Christian calledAgabus while visitingAntioch.[40]
A tunnel was dug through the lake bed, but the plan was a failure. The tunnel was crooked and not large enough to carry the water, which caused it to back up when opened. The resultant flood washed out a large gladiatorial exhibition held to commemorate the opening, causing Claudius to run for his life along with the other spectators. The draining of the lake continued to present a problem well into the Middle Ages. It was finally achieved by the PrinceTorlonia in the 19th century, producing over 160,000 acres (650 km2) of new arable land;[41] he expanded theClaudian tunnel to three times its original size.
Claudius, as the author of a treatise on Augustus's religious reforms, thought himself to be in a good position to institute some of his own. He had strong opinions about the proper form for state religion. He refused the request of Alexandrian Greeks to dedicate a temple to his divinity, saying that only gods may choose new gods; he restored lost days to festivals and got rid of many extraneous celebrations added by Caligula. He also re-established old observances and archaic language.
Claudius was concerned with the spread of eastern mysteries within the city and searched for more Roman replacements. He emphasized theEleusinian Mysteries, which had been practiced by so many during the Republic. He expelled foreign astrologers, and at the same time rehabilitated the old Roman soothsayers (known asharuspices) as a replacement. He was especially hard onDruidism, because of its incompatibility with the Roman state religion and itsproselytizing activities.[42]
Claudius personally judged many of the legal cases tried during his reign. Ancient historians have many complaints about this, stating that his judgments were variable and sometimes did not follow the law.[43][44] He was also easily swayed. Nevertheless, Claudius paid detailed attention to the operation of the judicial system. He extended the summer court session, as well as the winter term, by shortening the traditional breaks. Claudius also made a law requiring plaintiffs to remain in the city while their cases were pending, as defendants had previously been required to do. These measures had the effect of clearing out the docket. The minimum age for jurors was also raised to 25 to ensure a more experienced jury pool.[45]
Claudius also settled disputes in the provinces. He freed the island ofRhodes from Roman rule for their good faith and exempted Ilium (Troy) from taxes. Early in his reign, theGreeks andJews of Alexandria each sent him embassies after riots broke out between the two communities. This resulted in the famous "Letter to the Alexandrians", which reaffirmed Jewish rights in the city but forbade them to move in more families en masse. According toJosephus, he then reaffirmed the rights and freedoms of all theJews in the Empire.[46] However, Claudius alsoexpelled Jews from the city of Rome, following disturbances allegedly instigated byChristians. This expulsion is attested to inActs of the Apostles (18:2), and by Roman historians Suetonius andCassius Dio along with the fifth-century Christian authorPaulus Orosius.[47][48]
One of Claudius's investigators discovered that many old Roman citizens based in the city of Tridentum (modernTrento) were not in fact citizens.[49] The Emperor issued a declaration, contained in theTabula clesiana, that they would be allowed to hold citizenship from then on, since to strip them of their status would cause major problems. However, in individual cases, Claudius punished the false assumption of citizenship harshly, making it a capital offense. Similarly, any freedmen found to be laying false claim to membership of theRoman equestrian order were to have their property confiscated and selling into slavery, in the words of Suetonius, "such as were ungrateful and a cause of complaint to their patrons".[50][51]
Numerous edicts were issued throughout Claudius's reign. These were on a number of topics, everything from medical advice to moral judgments. A famous medical example is one promotingyew juice as a cure forsnakebite.[52] Suetonius wrote that he is even said to have thought of an edict allowing public flatulence for good health.[53] One of the more famous edicts concerned the status of sick slaves. Masters had been abandoning ailing slaves at thetemple of Aesculapius onTiber Island to die instead of providing them with medical assistance and care, and then reclaiming them if they lived. Claudius ruled that slaves who were thus abandoned and recovered after such treatment would be free. Furthermore, masters who chose to kill slaves rather than take care of them were liable to be charged with murder.[51]
According to Suetonius, Claudius was extraordinarily fond of games. He is said to have risen with the crowd after gladiatorial matches and given unrestrained praise to the fighters.[54] Claudius also presided over many new and original events. Soon after coming into power he instituted games to be held in honor of his father on the latter's birthday;[17] annual games were also held in honor of his accession, and took place at the Praetorian camp where Claudius had first been proclaimed Emperor.[55]
Claudius organized a performance of theSecular Games, marking the 800th anniversary of thefounding of Rome. Augustus had performed the same games less than a century prior. Augustus's excuse was that the interval for the games was 110 years, not 100, but his date actually did not qualify under either reasoning.[55] Claudius also presented staged naval battles to mark the attempted draining of theFucine Lake, as well as many other public games and shows.
At Ostia, in front of a crowd of spectators, Claudius fought anorca which was trapped in the harbour. The event was witnessed by Pliny the Elder:
A killer whale was actually seen in the harbour of Ostia in battle with the Emperor Claudius; it had come at the time when he was engaged in completing the structure of the harbour, being tempted by the wreck of a cargo of hides imported from Gaul, and in glutting itself for a number of days had furrowed a hollow in the shallow bottom and had been banked up with sand by the waves so high that it was quite unable to turn round, and while it was pursuing its food which was driven forward to the shore by the waves its back projected far above the water like a capsized boat. Caesar gave orders for a barrier of nets to be stretched between the mouths of the harbour and setting out in person with the praetorian cohorts afforded a show to the Roman public, the soldiery hurling lances from the vessels against the creatures when they leapt up alongside, and we saw one of the boats sunk from being filled with water owing to a beast's snorting.[56]
Claudius also restored and adorned many public venues in Rome. At theCircus Maximus, the turning posts and starting stalls were replaced in marble and embellished, and an embankment was probably added to prevent flooding of the track.[57] Claudius also reinforced or extended the seating rules that reserved front seating at the Circus for senators. He rebuiltPompey's Theatre after it had been destroyed by fire, organising special fights at the re-dedication, which he observed from a special platform in the orchestra box.[55]
Several coup attempts were made during Claudius's reign, resulting in the deaths of many senators.Appius Silanus was executed early in Claudius's reign under questionable circumstances.[51] Shortly after this, a large rebellion was undertaken by the SenatorVinicianus andScribonianus - governor ofDalmatia - and gained quite a few senatorial supporters. It ultimately failed because of the reluctance of Scribonianus' troops, which led to the suicide of the main conspirators.
Many other senators tried different conspiracies and were condemned. Claudius's son-in-lawPompeius Magnus was executed for his part in a conspiracy with his fatherCrassus Frugi. Another plot involved the consularsLusius Saturninus,Cornelius Lupus, and Pompeius Pedo.
In 46,Asinius Gallus, grandson ofAsinius Pollio, andTitus Statilius Taurus Corvinus were exiled for a plot hatched with several of Claudius's own freedmen.Valerius Asiaticus was executed without public trial for unknown reasons. Ancient sources say the charge wasadultery, and that Claudius was tricked into issuing the punishment. However, Claudius singles out Asiaticus for special damnation in his speech on the Gauls, which dates over a year later, suggesting that the charge must have been much more serious.
Asiaticus had been a claimant to the throne in the chaos following Caligula's death and a co-consul with Titus Statilius Taurus Corvinus. Most of these conspiracies took place before Claudius's term asCensor, and may have induced him to review the Senatorial rolls. The conspiracy ofGaius Silius in the year after his Censorship, 48, is detailed in book 11 of Tacitus's Annals. This section of Tacitus's history narrates the alleged conspiracy of Claudius's third wife,Messalina. Suetonius states that a total of 35 senators and 300 knights were executed for offenses during Claudius's reign.[51]
Suetonius and the other ancient authors accused Claudius of being dominated by women and wives, and of being awomanizer.[58][59]
Claudius married four times, after two failed betrothals. The first betrothal was to his distant cousinAemilia Lepida, but was broken for political reasons. The second was toLivia Medullina Camilla, which ended with Medullina's sudden death on their wedding day.
Plautia Urgulanilla was the granddaughter of Livia's confidantUrgulania. During their marriage she gave birth to a son,Claudius Drusus. Drusus died of asphyxiation in his early teens, shortly after becoming engaged to Junilla, daughter ofSejanus.
Claudius later divorced Urgulanilla for adultery and on suspicion of murdering her sister-in-law Apronia. When Urgulanilla gave birth after the divorce, Claudius repudiated the baby girl, Claudia, as the father was allegedly one of his own freedmen. Later, this action made him the target of criticism by his enemies.
Soon after, (possibly in 28) Claudius marriedAelia Paetina, a relative of Sejanus, if not Sejanus's adoptive sister. During their marriage, Claudius and Paetina had a daughter,Claudia Antonia. He later divorced her after the marriage became a political liability. One version suggests that it may have been due to emotional and mental abuse by Paetina.[60]
Some years after divorcing Aelia Paetina, in 38 or early 39, Claudius marriedValeria Messalina, who was his first cousin once removed (Claudius's grandmother, Octavia the Younger, was Valeria's great-grandmother on both her mother and father's side) and closely allied with Caligula's circle. Shortly thereafter, she gave birth to a daughter,Claudia Octavia. A son, first named Tiberius Claudius Germanicus, and later known asBritannicus, was born just after Claudius's accession.
This marriage ended in tragedy. The ancient historians allege that Messalina was anymphomaniac who was regularly unfaithful to Claudius—Tacitus states she went so far as to compete with a prostitute to see who could have more sexual partners in a night[61] – and manipulated his policies to amass wealth. In 48, Messalina married her loverGaius Silius in a public ceremony while Claudius was atOstia.
Sources disagree as to whether or not she divorced the Emperor first, and whether the intention was to usurp the throne. Under Roman law, the spouse needed to be informed that he or she had been divorced before a new marriage could take place; the sources state that Claudius was in total ignorance until after the marriage.[62] Scramuzza, in his biography, suggests that Silius may have convinced Messalina that Claudius was doomed, and the union was her only hope of retaining her rank and protecting her children.[63][64][65] The historian Tacitus suggests that Claudius's ongoing term as Censor may have prevented him from noticing the affair before it reached such a critical point, after which she was executed.[66]
Claudius married once more. Ancient sources tell that his freedmen put forward three candidates, Caligula's third wifeLollia Paulina, Claudius's divorced second wifeAelia Paetina and Claudius's nieceAgrippina the Younger. According to Suetonius, Agrippina won out through her feminine wiles. She gradually seized power from Claudius and successfully conspired to eliminate his son's rivals, opening the way for her son to become emperor.[67]
Sculpture ofAgrippina crowning her young sonNero (c. AD 54–59)
The truth is probably more political. The attemptedcoup d'état by Silius and Messalina probably made Claudius realize the weakness of his position as a member of the Claudian (but not the Julian) family. This weakness was compounded by the fact that he did not yet have an obvious adult heir, Britannicus being just a boy. Agrippina was one of the few remaining descendants of Augustus, and her sonLucius Domitius Ahenobarbus (the futureNero) was one of the last males of the Imperial family. Coup attempts might rally around the pair and Agrippina was already showing such ambition. It has been suggested that the Senate may have pushed for the marriage, an attempt to end the feud between the Julian and Claudian branches.[68] This feud dated back to Agrippina'smother's actions against Tiberius after the death of her husbandGermanicus (Claudius's brother), actions that Tiberius had punished.
Another reason was to bring in Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus as a candidate for the succession. His prestige as the descendent of Augustus and Germanicus made him popular, and marking him as an heir would have helped the survival of Claudius's regime.[69] In any case, Claudius accepted Agrippina and later adopted the mature Ahenobarbus as his son, renaming him as 'Nero Claudius Caesar'.
Nero was married to Claudius's daughter Octavia, made joint heir with the underageBritannicus, and promoted; Augustus had similarly named his grandsonPostumus Agrippa and his stepsonTiberius as joint heirs,[70] and Tiberius had named Caligula as his joint heir with his grandsonTiberius Gemellus.Adoption of adults or near adults was an old tradition in Rome when a suitable natural adult heir was unavailable, as was the case during Britannicus's minority. Claudius may have previously looked to adopt one of his sons-in-law to protect his own reign.[71]
Faustus Cornelius Sulla Felix, who was married to Claudius's daughterClaudia Antonia, was only descended from Octavia and Antony on one side – not close enough to the Imperial family to ensure his right to be Emperor (although that did not stop others from making him the object of a coup attempt against Nero a few years later), besides being the half-brother ofValeria Messalina, which told against him. Nero was more popular with the general public as both the grandson of Germanicus and the direct descendant of Augustus.
The historianSuetonius describes the physical manifestations of Claudius's condition.[72] His knees were weak and gave way under him and his head shook. He stammered and his speech was confused. He slobbered and his nose ran when he was excited. TheStoicSeneca states in hisApocolocyntosis that Claudius's voice belonged to no land animal, and that his hands were weak as well.[73]
However, he showed no physical deformity, as Suetonius notes that when calm and seated he was a tall, well-built figure ofdignitas.[72] When angered or stressed, his symptoms became worse. Historians agree that this condition improved upon his accession to the throne.[74] Claudius himself claimed that he had exaggerated his ailments to save his life.[75]
Modern assessments of his health have changed several times in the past century. Prior toWorld War II,infantile paralysis (or polio) was widely accepted as the cause. This is the diagnosis used inRobert Graves'sClaudius novels, first published in the 1930s.The New York Times wrote in 1934 that Claudius suffered from infantile paralysis (which led to his limp state) andmeasles (which made him deaf) at seven months of age, among several other ailments.[76] Polio does not explain many of the described symptoms, however, and a more recent theory implicatescerebral palsy as the cause.[60]Tourette syndrome has also been considered a possibility.[77][78]
As a person, ancient historians described Claudius as generous and lowbrow, a man who sometimes lunched with theplebeians.[79][80] They also paint him as bloodthirsty and cruel, over-fond ofgladiatorial combat and executions, and very quick to anger; Claudius himself acknowledged the latter trait, and apologized publicly for his temper.[81][82] According to the ancient historians he was also excessively trusting, and easily manipulated by his wives and freedmen,[51][83] but at the same time they portray him as paranoid and apathetic, dull and easily confused.[84][85]
Claudius wrote copiously throughout his life.Arnaldo Momigliano states that during the reign of Tiberius, which covers the peak of Claudius's literary career, it became impolitic to speak ofrepublican Rome. The trend among the young historians was either to write about the new empire or about obscure antiquarian topics. Claudius was the rare scholar who covered both.[86]
Besides his history of Augustus' reign that caused him so much grief, his major works includedTyrrhenika, a twenty-bookEtruscan history, andCarchedonica, an eight-volume history ofCarthage,[87] as well as anEtruscan dictionary. He also wrote abook on dice-playing. Despite the general avoidance of the topic of the Republican era, he penned a defense ofCicero against the charges ofAsinius Gallus. Modern historians have used this to determine the nature of his politics and of the aborted chapters of his civil war history.
He proposed a reform of theLatin alphabet by the addition ofthree new letters; he officially instituted the change during his censorship but they did not survive his reign. Claudius also tried to revivethe old custom of putting dots between successive words (Classical Latin was written with no spacing). Finally, he wrote an eight-volume autobiography that Suetonius describes as lacking in taste.[88] Claudius (like most of the members of his dynasty) harshly criticized his predecessors and relatives in surviving speeches.[89]
None of the works survived, but other sources' reference to him provide material for the surviving histories of the Julio-Claudian dynasty. Suetonius quotes Claudius's autobiography once and must have used it as a source numerous times. Tacitus uses Claudius's arguments for the orthographical innovations mentioned above and may have used him for some of the more antiquarian passages in his annals. Claudius is the source for numerous passages of Pliny'sNatural History.[90]
The influence of historical study on Claudius is obvious. In his speech on Gallic senators, he uses a version of the founding of Rome identical to that of Livy, his tutor in adolescence. Many of the public works instituted in his reign were based on plans first suggested byJulius Caesar. Levick believes this emulation of Caesar may have spread to all aspects of his policies.[91]
His censorship seems to have been based on those of his ancestors, particularlyAppius Claudius Caecus, and he used the office to put into place many policies based on those of Republican times. This is when many of his religious reforms took effect; also, his building efforts greatly increased during his tenure. In fact, his assumption of the office of Censor may have been motivated by a desire to see his academic labors bear fruit. For example, he believed (as most Romans did) that Caecus had used the power of the censorship office to introducethe letter "R" and so used his own term to introduce his new letters.[92]
Ancient historians agree that Claudius was murdered by poison – possibly contained in mushrooms or on a feather (ostensibly put down his throat to induce vomiting) – and died in the early hours of 13 October 54.[93]
Nearly all implicate his final and powerful wife,Agrippina, as the instigator. Agrippina and Claudius had become more combative in the months leading up to his death. This carried on to the point where Claudius openly lamented his bad wives, and began to comment onBritannicus' approaching manhood with an eye towards restoring his status within the imperial family. Agrippina had motive in ensuring the succession of Nero before Britannicus could gain power.[94]
Some implicate either his tasterHalotus, his doctorXenophon, or the infamous poisonerLocusta as the administrator of the fatal substance.[95] Some say he died after prolonged suffering following a single dose at dinner, and some have him recovering only to be poisoned again.[96] Among his contemporary sources,Seneca the Younger ascribed the emperor's death to natural causes, while Josephus only spoke of rumors of his poisoning.[97]
Some historians have cast doubt on whether Claudius was murdered or merely died from illness or old age.[d] Evidence against his murder include his serious illnesses in his last years, his unhealthy lifestyle and the fact that his taster Halotus continued to serve in the same position under Nero. Claudius had been so ill the year before that Nero vowed games for his recovery and the year of 54 seems to have been such an unhealthy year that one sitting member of each magistracy died within the span of a few months. He may even have died by eating a naturally poisonous mushroom, possiblyAmanita muscaria.[98] On the other hand, some modern scholars claim the near universality of the accusations in ancient texts lends credence to the crime.[99] Claudius's ashes were interred in theMausoleum of Augustus on 24 October 54, after a funeral similar to that of his great-uncle Augustus 40 years earlier.
Agrippina had sentNarcissus away shortly before Claudius's death, and now had the freedman murdered.
The last act of this secretary of letters was to burn all of Claudius's correspondence – most likely so it could not be used against him and others in an already hostile new regime. Thus Claudius's private words about his own policies and motives were lost to history. Just as Claudius had criticized his predecessors in official edicts, Nero often criticized the deceased Emperor, and many Claudian laws and edicts were disregarded under the reasoning that he was too stupid and senile to have meant them.[102]
Seneca'sApocolocyntosis mocks the deification of Claudius and reinforces the view of Claudius as an unpleasant fool; this remained the official view for the duration of Nero's reign. Eventually Nero stopped referring to his deified adoptive father at all. Claudius's temple was left unfinished after only some of the foundation had been laid down. Eventually the site was overtaken by Nero'sGolden House.[103]
TheFlavians, who had risen to prominence under Claudius, took a different tack. They needed to shore up their legitimacy, but also justify the fall of the Julio-Claudians. They reached back to Claudius in contrast with Nero, to show that they were associated with a good regime. Commemorative coins were issued of Claudius and his sonBritannicus, who had been a friend of EmperorTitus (Titus was born in 39, Britannicus was born in 41). When Nero'sGolden House was burned, theTemple of Claudius was finally completed on the Caelian Hill.[103]
However, as the Flavians became established, they needed to emphasize their own credentials more, and their references to Claudius ceased. Instead, he was lumped with the other emperors of the fallen dynasty. His state-cult in Rome probably continued until the abolition of all cults of dead Emperors byMaximinus Thrax in 237–238.[104] TheFeriale Duranum, probably identical to the festival calendars of every regular army unit, assigns him a sacrifice of asteer on his birthday, theKalends of August.[105] And such commemoration (and consequent feasting) probably continued until the Christianization and disintegration of the army in the late 4th century.[104]
The ancient historians Tacitus, Suetonius (inThe Twelve Caesars), andCassius Dio all wrote after the last of the Flavians had gone. All three were senators orequites. They took the side of the Senate in most conflicts with the Princeps, invariably viewing him as being in the wrong. This resulted in biases, both conscious and unconscious. Suetonius lost access to the official archives shortly after beginning his work. He was forced to rely on second-hand accounts when it came to Claudius (with the exception of Augustus's letters, which had been gathered earlier). Suetonius painted Claudius as a ridiculous figure, belittling many of his acts and crediting his good works to his retinue.[106]
Tacitus wrote a narrative for his fellow senators and fitted each of the emperors into a simple mold of his choosing.[107] He wrote of Claudius as a passive pawn and an idiot in affairs relating to the palace and public life. During his Censorship of 47–48 Tacitus allows the reader a glimpse of a Claudius who is more statesmanlike (XI.23–25), but it is a mere glimpse. Tacitus is usually held to have 'hidden' his use of Claudius's writings and to have omitted Claudius's character from his works.[e] Even his version of Claudius's Lyon tablet speech is edited to be devoid of the emperor's personality. Dio was less biased, but seems to have used Suetonius and Tacitus as sources. Thus, the conception of Claudius as a weak fool, controlled by those he supposedly ruled, was preserved for the ages.
As time passed, Claudius was mostly forgotten outside of the historians' accounts. His books were lost first, as their antiquarian subjects became unfashionable. In the 2nd century,Pertinax, who shared his birthday, became emperor, overshadowing commemoration of Claudius.[109]
The best known fictional representation of the Emperor Claudius was contained in the booksI, Claudius andClaudius the God (published in 1934 and 1935, respectively) byRobert Graves, both written in thefirst-person to give the reader the impression that they are Claudius's autobiography. Graves employed a fictive artifice to suggest that they were recently discovered, genuine translations of Claudius's writings. Claudius's extant letters, speeches, and sayings were incorporated into the text (mostly in the second book,Claudius the God), to add authenticity.
In 1937, directorJosef von Sternberg attempted a film version ofI, Claudius, withCharles Laughton as Claudius. However, the lead actress,Merle Oberon, had a near-fatal car accident and the movie was never finished. The surviving reels were featured in the BBC documentaryThe Epic That Never Was (1965). The motion picture rights for a new film eventually passed to producerScott Rudin (b. 1958).[110]
Graves's two books were the basis for a British television adaptationI, Claudius, produced by theBBC. The series starredDerek Jacobi as Claudius and was broadcast in 1976 onBBC2.[111] It was a substantial critical success, and won severalBAFTA awards. The series was later broadcast in the United States onMasterpiece Theatre in 1977. The 1996 7-VHS release and the later DVD release of the television series, includeThe Epic That Never Was documentary.
In 2011, it was announced rights for a miniseries adaptation passed to HBO and BBC Two. Anne Thomopoulos and Jane Tranter, producers of the popular HBO–BBC2Rome miniseries, were attached to theI, Claudius project. However, as of 2018, it has yet to be produced, and no release date is pending.
In the 1979 motion pictureCaligula, where the role was performed byGiancarlo Badessi, Claudius is depicted as an idiot, in contrast toRobert Graves' portrait of Claudius as a cunning and deeply intelligent man, who is perceived by others to be an idiot.
In the 1981 Franco-Italian filmCaligula and Messalina, he was portrayed by Gino Turini (as John Turner).
The 1985 made-for-televisionminiseriesA.D. features actorRichard Kiley as Claudius. Kiley portrays him as thoughtful, but willing to cater to public opinion as well as being under the influence of Agrippina.
There is also a reference to Claudius's suppression of a coup in the movieGladiator, though that incident is entirely fictional.
In the series Britannia (2018), Claudius visits Britannia, played bySteve Pemberton as a fool who is drugged byAulus Plautius.
He is portrayed in Season 3 of theNetflix documentary seriesRoman Empire, which focused on the reign of Caligula, by Kelson Henderson. The series concludes with Claudius's accession.
The historical novel Chariot of the Soul by Linda Proud features Claudius as host and mentor of the young Togidubnus, son of King Verica of the Atrebates, during his ten-year stay in Rome. When Togidubnus returns to Britain in advance of the Roman army, it is with a mission given to him by Claudius.
^Claudius was born as 'Tiberius Claudius Drusus' and changed his name after his elder brother was adopted into theJulii followingDrusus's death.[1] Simpson[2] and Hurley[3] suggest that he added the 'Germanicus' in 9 BC by senatorial decree and switched 'Drusus' for 'Nero' when he became head of the familyClaudii Nerones in AD 4. Stuart[4] and Levick[5] somewhat ignore Suetonius and propose that his name was always Ti. Claudius Nero, and that he added Germanicus only in AD 4.
^Sometimes referred to asClaudius I, in reference to the later emperor (Claudius II).
^Simpson[2] and Hurley[3] suggest that he added the 'Germanicus' in 9 BC by senatorial decree and switched 'Drusus' for 'Nero' when he became head of the familyClaudii Nerones in AD 4. Stuart[4] and Levick[5] somewhat ignore Suetonius and propose that his name was always Ti. Claudius Nero, and that he added Germanicus only in AD 4.
^Scramuzza 1940, pp. 92–93 says that tradition makes every emperor the victim of foul play, so we can't know if Claudius was truly murdered. The Emperor appears to have been seriously ill since at least 53.Levick 2015, pp. 76–77 raises the possibility that Claudius was killed by the stress of fighting with Agrippina over the succession, but concludes that the timing makes murder the most likely cause.
^Annales XI 14 is often thought to be a good example: the digression on the history of writing is actually Claudius's own argument for his new letters, and fits in with his personality and extant writings. Tacitus makes no explicit attribution – and so there exists the possibility that the digression is Tacitus's own work or derivative of another source.[108]
^abSuetonius, Claudius 2.1; "Claudius was born at Lugdunum on the Kalends of Augustus in the consulship ofIullus Antonius andFabius Africanus, the very day when an altar was first dedicated to Augustus in that town, and he received the name of Tiberius Claudius Drusus. Later, on the adoption of his elder brother into the Julian family, he took the surname [of]Germanicus".
^Gaius Tranquillus Suetonius, Graves, R., & Grant, M. (2006).The Twelve Caesars (p. 190). Penguin."Claudius also completed a task begun by Gaius: he brought cool and abundant springs called the Caerulean and the Curtian or Albudignan, as well as the New Anio, into Rome;..."
^See Claudius'sTabula clesiana, in which he refers to the "obstinate retirement" of Tiberius. See alsoJosephus,Ant Iud. XIX, where an edict of Claudius refers to Caligula's "madness and lack of understanding."
^Levick 2015 also as opposed to the murder of Augustus, which is only found in Tacitus and Dio where he quotes Tacitus. Suetonius, an inveterate gossip, doesn't mention it at all.
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