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TheMiddle Kingdoms of India were the political entities that existed on theIndian subcontinent from 230 BCE to 1206 CE. The period began with the decline of theMaurya Empire and the corresponding rise of theSatavahana dynasty, initiated bySimuka in the 1st century BCE. The “middle” period lasted for over 1,200 years and concluded in 1206 CE with the establishment of theDelhi Sultanate and the gradual decline of theLater Cholas, the last of whom,Rajendra Chola III, died in 1279 CE.
This period encompasses two eras:Classical India, from theMaurya Empire up until the end of theGupta Empire in 500 CE, andearly Medieval India from 500 CE onwards.[1] It also encompasses the era of classicalHinduism, which is dated from 200 BCE to 1100 CE.[2] From 1 CE until 1000 CE,India's economy is estimated to have been the largest in the world, having between one-third and one-quarter of the world's wealth.[3][4] This period was followed by the lateMedieval period in the 13th century.
During the 2nd century BCE, theMaurya Empire became a collage of regional powers with overlapping boundaries. The whole northwest attracted a series of invaders between 200 BCE and 300 CE. ThePuranas speak of many of these tribes as foreigners and impure barbarians (Mlecchas). First theSatavahana dynasty and then theGupta Empire, both successor states to the Maurya Empire, attempt to contain the expansions of the successive before eventually crumbling internally due to the pressure exerted by these wars.
The invading tribes were influenced byBuddhism which continued to flourish under the patronage of both invaders and the Satavahanas and Guptas and provides a cultural bridge between the two cultures. Over time, the invaders became "Indianized" as they influenced society and philosophy across the Gangetic plains and were conversely influenced by it. This period is marked by both intellectual and artistic achievements inspired by cultural diffusion andsyncretism as the new kingdoms straddle theSilk Road.
TheIndo-Greek Kingdom covered various parts of the NorthwesternSouth Asia during the last two centuries BCE, and was ruled by more than 30Hellenistic kings, often in conflict with each other.
The kingdom was founded whenDemetrius I of Bactria invaded theHindu Kush early in the 2nd century BCE. The Greeks in India were eventually divided from theGreco-Bactrian Kingdom centered in Bactria (now the border betweenAfghanistan andUzbekistan).
The expression "Indo-Greek Kingdom" loosely describes a number of various dynastic polities. There were numerous cities, such asTaxila,[6]Pushkalavati andSagala in Pakistan'sPunjab.[7] These cities would house a number of dynasties in their times, and based onPtolemy'sGeography and the nomenclature of later kings, a certainTheophila in the south was also probably a satrapal or royal seat at some point.
Euthydemus I was, according toPolybius[8] aMagnesian Greek. His son, Demetrius, founder of the Indo-Greek kingdom, was therefore of Greek descent from his father at minimum. A marriage treaty was arranged for Demetrius with a daughter ofAntiochus III the Great, who had partialPersian descent.[9] The ethnicity of later Indo-Greek rulers is less clear.[10] For example,Artemidoros Aniketos (80 BCE) may have been of Indo-Scythian descent. Intermarriage also occurred, as exemplified byAlexander the Great, who marriedRoxana of Bactria, orSeleucus I Nicator, who marriedApama of Sogdia.
During the two centuries of their rule, the Indo-Greek kings combined the Greek and Indian languages and symbols, as seen on their coins, and blended Greek, Hindu and Buddhist religious practices, as seen in the archaeological remains of their cities and in the indications of their support of Buddhism, pointing to a rich fusion of Indian and Hellenistic influences.[11] The diffusion of Indo-Greek culture had consequences which are still felt today, particularly through the influence ofGreco-Buddhist art. The Indo-Greeks ultimately disappeared as a political entity around 10 CE following the invasions of the Indo-Scythians, although pockets of Greek populations probably remained for several centuries longer under the subsequent rule of the Indo-Parthians andKushan Empire.[12]
TheYavana orYona people, literally "Ionian" and meaning "Western foreigner", were described as living beyond Gandhara. Yavanas, Sakas,the Pahlavas andHunas were sometimes described asmlecchas, "foreigners".Kambojas and the inhabitants ofMadra, theKekeya Kingdom, theIndus River region and Gandhara were sometimes also classified asmlecchas. This name was used to indicate their cultural differences with the culture of theKuru Kingdom andPanchala.[citation needed]
TheIndo-Scythians are a branch of theSakas who migrated from southernSiberia intoBactria,Sogdia,Arachosia,Gandhara,Kashmir,Punjab, and into parts of Western and Central India,Gujarat,Maharashtra andRajasthan, from the middle of the 2nd century BCE to the 4th centuryCE. The first Saka king in India wasMaues or Moga who established Saka power in Gandhara and gradually extended supremacy over north-western India. Indo-Scythian rule in India ended with the last of theWestern Satraps,Rudrasimha III, in 395 CE.
The invasion of India by Scythian tribes fromCentral Asia, often referred to as the "Indo-Scythian invasion", played a significant part in thehistory of India as well as nearby countries. In fact, the Indo-Scythian war is just one chapter in the events triggered by the nomadic flight of Central Asians from conflict with Chinesetribes which had lasting effects onBactria,Kabul,Parthia and India as well as far off Rome in the west. The Scythian groups that invaded India and set up variouskingdoms, included, besides the Sakas,[13] other alliedtribes, such as theMedes,[14][better source needed]Scythians,[14][15][better source needed]Massagetae,[citation needed]Getae,[16]Parama Kambojas,Avars,[citation needed]Bahlikas,Rishikas andParadas.
TheIndo-Parthian Kingdom was founded byGondophares around 20 BCE. The kingdom lasted only briefly until its conquest by the Kushan Empire in the late 1st century CE and was a loose framework where many smaller dynasts maintained their independence.
ThePahlavas are a people mentioned in ancient Indian texts like theManusmṛti, variousPuranas, theRamayana, theMahabharata, and theBrhatsamhita. In some texts the Pahlavas are synonymous with thePallava dynasty ofSouth India. While theVayu Purana distinguishes betweenPahlava andPahnava, theVamana Purana andMatsya Purana refer to both asPallava. TheBrahmanda Purana andMarkendeya Purana refer to both asPahlava orPallava. TheBhishama Parava of theMahabharata does not distinguish between the Pahlavas and Pallavas. The Pahlavas are said to be same as the Parasikas, a Saka group. According to P. Carnegy,[17][18] the Pahlava are probably those people who spoke Paluvi or Pehlvi, theParthian language. Buhler similarly suggests Pahlava is an Indic form ofParthava meaning "Parthian".[18][17] In a 4th-century BCE, theVartika ofKātyāyana mentions theSakah-Parthavah, demonstrating an awareness of these Saka-Parthians, probably by way of commerce.[19]
TheWestern Satraps (35–405 CE) were Saka rulers of the western and central part of India (Saurashtra andMalwa: modernGujarat, southernSindh,Maharashtra,Rajasthan andMadhya Pradesh states). Their state, or at least part of it, was called "Ariaca" according to thePeriplus of the Erythraean Sea. They were successors to the Indo-Scythians and were contemporaneous with the Kushan Empire, which ruled the northern part of the Indian subcontinent and were possibly their overlords, and the Satavahana dynasty ofAndhra who ruled in Central India. They are called "Western" in contrast to the "Northern" Indo-Scythian satraps who ruled in the area ofMathura, such asRajuvula, and his successors under the Kushans, the "Great Satrap" Kharapallana and the "Satrap" Vanaspara.[a] Although they called themselves "Satraps" on their coins, leading to their modern designation of "Western Satraps", Ptolemy'sGeography still called them "Indo-Scythians".[22] Altogether, there were 27 independent Western Satrap rulers during a period of about 350 years.
The Kushan Empire (c. 1st–3rd centuries) originally formed inBactria on either side of the middle course of theAmu Darya in what is now northern Afghanistan, Tajikistan and Uzbekistan; during the 1st century CE, they expanded their territory to include the Punjab and much of theGanges basin, conquering a number of kingdoms across the northern part of the Indian subcontinent in the process.[23][24] The Kushans conquered the central section of the main Silk Road and, therefore, had control of the overland trade between India, andChina to the east, and theRoman Empire andPersia to the west.
Emperor Kanishka was a great patron ofBuddhism; however, as Kushans expanded southward toward theIndian subcontinent the deities of their later coinage came to reflect its newHindu majority.[25][26]
The rise of new Persian power, theSasanian Empire, saw them exert their influence into the Indus region and conquer lands from the Kushan Empire, setting up theIndo-Sasanians around 240 CE. They were to maintain their influence in the region until they were overthrown by theRashidun Caliphate. Afterwards, they were displaced in 410 CE by the invasions of theHephthalite Empire.
TheHephthalite Empire was another Central Asian nomadic group to invade. They are also linked to theYuezhi who had founded the Kushan Empire. From their capital inBamyan (present-day Afghanistan) they extended their rule across the Indus andNorth India, thereby causing the collapse of the Gupta Empire. They were eventually defeated by the Sasanian Empire allied withTurkic peoples.
TheRai dynasty ofSindh were patrons ofBuddhism even though they also established a huge temple ofShiva inSukkur close to their capital,Aror.
Gandhāra was an ancient region in theKabul,Peshawar,Swat, andTaxila areas of what are now northwesternPakistan and easternAfghanistan. It was one of 16Mahajanapada ofancient India.[27][28][29]
TheKarkota Empire was established around 625 CE. During the eighth century they consolidated their rule over Kashmir.[31] The most illustrious ruler of the dynasty wasLalitaditya Muktapida. According to Kalhana'sRajatarangini, he defeated the Tibetans andYashovarman ofKanyakubja, and subsequently conquered eastern kingdoms of Magadha,Kamarupa,Gauda, andKaḷinga. Kalhana also states that he extended his influence of Malwa andGujarat and defeatedArabs atSindh.[32]: 260–263 [33][incomplete short citation] According to historians, Kalhana highly exaggerated the conquests of Lalitaditya.[34][35]
The Kabul Shahi dynasties ruled portions of theKabul valley and Gandhara from the decline of theKushan Empire in the 3rd century to the early 9th century.[36] The kingdom was known as the Kabul Shahan or Ratbelshahan from 565 CE–670 CE, when the capitals were located inKapisa and Kabul, and laterUdabhandapura, also known as Hund,[37] for its new capital. In ancient time, the title Shahi appears to be a quite popular royal title in Afghanistan and the northwestern areas of the Indian subcontinent. Variants were used much more priorly in the Near East,[b] but as well later on by the Sakas, Kushans Hunas, Bactrians, by the rulers of Kapisa/Kabul andGilgit.[38][39][40] In Persian form, the title appears asKshathiya, Kshathiya Kshathiyanam, Shao of the Kushanas and theSsaha ofMihirakula (Huna chief).[41][39] The Kushanas are stated to have adopted the titleShah-in-shahi (Shaonano shao) in imitation of Achaemenid practice.[42] The Shahis are generally split up into two eras—the Buddhist Shahis and the Hindu Shahis, with the change-over thought to have occurred sometime around 870 CE.
Following the demise of theMauryan Empire, theSatavahanas rose as the successor state to check and contend with the influx of theCentral Asian tribes from the Northwest. The Satavahanas straddling theDeccan plateau also provided a link for transmission ofBuddhism and contact between the NorthernGangetic plains and the Southern regions even as theUpanishads were gaining ground. Eventually weakened both by contention with the northwestern invaders and internal strife they broke up and gave rise to several nations around Deccan and central India regions even as theGupta Empire arose in theIndo-Gangetic Plain and ushered in a"Golden Age" and rebirth of empire as decentralized local administrative model and the spread of Indian culture until collapse under theHuna invasions. After the fall ofGupta Empire the Gangetic region broke up into several states temporarily reunited underHarsha then giving rise to theRajput dynasties. In theDeccan, theChalukyas arose forming a formidable nation marking the migration of the centers of cultural and military power long held in theIndo-Gangetic Plain to the new nations forming in the southern regions of India.
TheSātavāhana dynasty began as feudatories to theMaurya Empire but declared independence with its decline. They were the first Indic rulers to issue coins struck with their rulers embossed and are known for their patronage ofBuddhism, resulting in Buddhist monuments from theEllora Caves toAmaravathi village, Guntur district. They formed a cultural bridge and played a vital role in trade and the transfer of ideas and culture to and from the Gangetic plains to the southern tip of India.[citation needed]
The Sātavāhanas had to compete with theShunga Empire and then theKanva dynasty ofMagadha to establish their rule. Later they had to contend in protecting their domain from the incursions ofSakas,Yonas andthe Pahlavas. In particular their struggles with theWestern Satraps weakened them and the empire split into smaller states.[citation needed]
The Mahameghavahanas (c. 250s BCE – 400s CE) was an ancient ruling dynasty ofKaḷinga after the decline of the Mauryan Empire. The third ruler of the dynasty,Khārabēḷa, conquered much ofIndia in a series of campaigns at the beginning of the common era.[43] Kaḷingan military might was reinstated by Khārabēḷa: under Khārabēḷa's generalship, the Kaḷinga state had a formidable maritime reach with trade routes linking it to the then-Simhala (Sri Lanka), Burma (Myanmar), Siam (Thailand), Vietnam, Kamboja (Cambodia), Borneo, Bali, Samudra (Sumatra) and Jabadwipa (Java). Khārabēḷa led many successful campaigns against the states of Magadha,Anga, the Satavahanas and theSouth Indian regions ruled by thePandyan dynasty (modernAndhra Pradesh) and expanded Kaḷinga as far as theGanges and theKaveri.
The Kharavelan state had a formidable maritime empire with trading routes linking it toSri Lanka,Burma,Thailand,Vietnam,Cambodia,Borneo,Bali,Sumatra andJava. Colonists from Kaḷinga settled in Sri Lanka, Burma, as well as theMaldives andMaritime Southeast Asia. Even today Indians are referred to asKeling in Malaysia because of this.[44]
Although religiously tolerant, Khārabēḷa patronisedJainism,[45][46] and was responsible for the propagation of Jainism in theIndian subcontinent but his importance is neglected in many accounts of Indian history. The main source of information about Khārabeḷa is his famous seventeen line rock-cutHātigumphā inscription in theUdayagiri and Khandagiri Caves nearBhubaneswar, Odisha. According to the Hathigumpha inscription, he attackedRajagriha in Magadha, thus inducing the Indo-Greek kingDemetrius I of Bactria to retreat toMathura.[47]
Before the rise of the Guptas,Bharshiva Kings ruled most of theIndo-Gangetic plains. They perform tenAshvamedha sacrifices on the banks of Ganga River.Samudragupta mention Naga rulers in his Allahabad pillar.[48]
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TheVakataka Empire was the contemporaries of theGupta Empire and the successor state of theSatavahanas they formed the southern boundaries of the north and ruled over today's modern-day states ofMadhya Pradesh andMaharashtra during the 3rd and 5th centuries. The rock-cut Buddhist viharas and chaityas ofAjanta Caves (aUNESCO World Heritage Site), built under the patronage of the Vakataka rulers. They were eventually overrun by theChalukyas.
TheClassical Age refers to the period when much of theIndian Subcontinent was reunited under theGupta Empire (ca. 320 CE–600 CE).[49] This period is called theGolden Age of India[50] and was marked by extensive achievements inscience, technology,engineering,art,literature,logic,mathematics,astronomy,religion andphilosophy that crystallized the elements of what is generally known asHindu culture.[51] Thedecimal numeral system, including the concept ofzero, was invented in India during this period.[citation needed] The peace and prosperity created under Guptas leadership enabled the pursuit of scientific and artistic endeavors in India.[52]
The high points of this cultural creativity is seen in Gupta architecture, sculpture and painting.[53] The Gupta period produced scholars such asKalidasa,Aryabhata,Varahamihira,Vishnu Sharma, andVatsyayana who made advances in a variety of academic fields.[54] Science and political administration advanced during the Gupta era.[citation needed][clarification needed] Trade ties made the region an important cultural center and set the region up as a base that would influence nearby kingdoms and regions inBurma,Sri Lanka, and bothmaritime andmainland Southeast Asia.
The Guptas performed Vedic sacrifices to legitimize their rule, but they also patronizedBuddhism, which continued to provide an alternative to Brahmanical orthodoxy.[citation needed] The military exploits of the first three rulers -Chandragupta I (ca. 319–335),Samudragupta (ca. 335–376), andChandragupta II (ca. 376–415) —brought much of India under their leadership.[55] They successfully resisted the north-western kingdoms until the arrival of theHunas who established themselves in Afghanistan by the first half of the 5th century, with their capital atBamiyan. Nevertheless, much of theDeccan and southern India were largely unaffected by this state of flux in the north.[citation needed]
After the collapse of theGupta Empire, the gangetic plains fractured into numerous small nations.Harsha ofKannauj was able to briefly bind them together under his rulership as theEmpire of Harsha. Only a defeat at the hands of theChalukyas (Pulakeshin II) prevented him from expanding his reign south of theNarmada River. This unity did not last long beyond his reign and his empire fractured soon after his death in 647 AD.
The Later Gupta dynasty, also known as the Later Guptas of Magadha, were the rulers of theMagadha region and partly ofMalwa from the 6th and 8th centuries CE. The Later Guptas emerged after the disintegration of theImperial Guptas as the rulers of Magadha and Malwa however, there is no evidence to connect the two dynasties and the Later Guptas may have adopted the -gupta suffix to link themselves the Imperial Guptas.[56][57]
Present dayRajasthan was Gurjara area for centuries with capital atBhilmal (Bhinmal or Srimal), situated nearly 50 miles to the north west ofMount Abu.[58] The Pratihara of Bhinmal moved to Kannuaj on theGanges at the beginning of the 9th century and transferred their capital to Kannuaj and founded an empire which at its peak was bounded on the east byBihar, on the west by thelost river,the Hakra, and theArabian Sea, on the North By theHimalaya andSutlaj, and on the South by theJumna andNarmada.[58] The region roundBroach, which was offshoot of this kingdom, was also ruled by theGurjaras of Nandipuri andGurjaras of Lata.[32]: 66
TheVishnukundina Empire was an Indian dynasty that ruled over theDeccan,Odisha and parts ofSouth India during the 5th and 6th centuries carving land out from theVakataka Empire. The Vishnukundin reign came to an end with the conquest of the eastern Deccan by theChalukya,Pulakeshin II. Pulakeshin appointed his brotherKubja Vishnuvardhana as Viceroy to rule over the conquered lands. Eventually Vishnuvardhana declared his independence and started theEastern Chalukya dynasty.
TheMaitraka Empire ruledGujarat in western India from the c. 475 to 767 CE. The founder of the dynasty,Senapati (general) Bhatarka, was a military governor ofSaurashtrapeninsula underGupta Empire, who had established himself as the independent ruler of Gujarat approximately in the last quarter of the 5th century. The first two Maitraka rulers Bhatarka and Dharasena I used only the title ofSenapati (general). The third ruler Dronasimha declared himself as theMaharaja.[59] King Guhasena stopped using the termParamabhattaraka Padanudhyata along his name like his predecessors, which denotes the cessation of displaying of the nominal allegiance to the Gupta overlords. He was succeeded by his son Dharasena II, who used the title ofMahadhiraja. His son, the next ruler Siladitya I, Dharmaditya was described byHiuen Tsang as a "monarch of great administrative ability and of rare kindness and compassion". Siladitya I was succeeded by his younger brother Kharagraha I.[60] Virdi copperplate grant (616 CE) of Kharagraha I proves that his territories includedUjjain.
TheGurjara Pratihara Empire (Hindi: गुर्जर प्रतिहार)[61] formed an Indian dynasty that ruled much ofNorthern India from the 6th to the 11th centuries. At its peak of prosperity and power (c. 836–910 CE), it rivaled theGupta Empire in the extent of its territory.[62]
Pointing out the importance of the Gurjara Pratihara empire in the history of India Dr.R. C. Majumdar has observed,"theGurjara Pratihara Empire which continued in full glory for nearly a century, was the last great empire in Northern India before theMuslim conquest." This honour is accorded to the empire ofHarsha by many historians of repute but without any real justification, for the Pratihara empire was probably larger, certainly not less in extent rivalled theGupta Empire and brought political unity and its attendant blessings upon a large part of Northern India. But its chief credit lies in its successful resistance to the foreign invasions from the west, from the days ofJunaid. This was frankly recognised by the Arab writers themselves.
Historians of India, since the days ofEliphinstone, has wondered at slow progress of Muslim invaders in India compared to their rapid advance in other parts of the world. Arguments of doubtful validity have often been put forward to explain this unique phenomenon. Now there can be little doubt that it was the power of the Gurjara Pratihara army that effectively barred the progress of the Muslims beyond the confines ofSindh, their first conquest for nearly three hundred years. In the light of later events this might be regarded as the "chief contribution of the Gurjara Pratiharas to the history of India".[63]
TheRajput were a Hindu clan who rose to power across a region stretching from the Gangetic plains to the Afghan mountains, and refer to the various dynasties of the many kingdoms in the region in the wake of the collapse of theSassanid Empire andGupta Empire and marks the transition of Buddhist ruling dynasties to Hindu ruling dynasties.
TheKatoch were a Hindu Rajput clan of theChandravanshi lineage; with recent research suggests that Katoch may be one of the oldest royal dynasties in the world.[64]
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TheChauhan dynasty flourished from the 8th to 12th centuries CE. It was one of the three main Rajput dynasties of that era, the others beingPratiharas andParamaras. Chauhan dynasties established themselves in several places inNorth India and in the state ofGujarat inWestern India. They were also prominent at Sirohi in the southwest ofRajputana, and at Bundi and Kota in the east. Inscriptions also associate them with Sambhar, the salt lake area in theAmber (later Jaipur) district (the Sakhambari branch remained near lake Sambhar and married into the rulingGurjara-Pratihara, who then ruled an empire inNorthern India). Chauhans adopted a political policy that saw them indulge largely in campaigns against the Chalukyas and the invading Muslim hordes. In the 11th century, they founded the city of Ajayameru (Ajmer) in the southern part of their kingdom, and in the 12th century, the Chauhans captured Dhilika (the ancient name ofDelhi) from the Tomaras and annexed some of their territory along theYamuna River.
TheChauhan Kingdom became the leading state in Northern India under KingPrithviraj III (1165–1192 CE), also known asPrithvi Raj Chauhan or Rai Pithora.Prithviraj III has become famous in folk tales and historical literature as the Chauhan king ofDelhi who resisted and repelled the invasion byMohammed of Ghor at theFirst Battle of Tarain in 1191. Armies from other Rajput kingdoms, includingMewar, assisted him. The Chauhan kingdom collapsed after Prithviraj and his armies faced defeat[65][66] from Mohammed of Ghor in 1192 at theSecond Battle of Tarain.
TheKachwaha originated as tributaries of the preceding powers of the region. Some scholars point out that it was only following the downfall, in the 8th–10th century, ofKannauj (the regional seat-of-power, following the break-up ofHarsha's empire), that the Kacchapaghata state emerged as a principal power in theChambal valley of present-dayMadhya Pradesh.[67]
TheParamara dynasty was aRajput dynasty in earlyMedieval India who ruled overMalwa region in central India.[68] This dynasty was founded by Upendra in c. 800 CE. The most significant ruler of this dynasty wasBhoja who was aphilosopher king andpolymath. The seat of the Paramara kingdom wasDhara Nagari (the present dayDhar city inMadhya Pradesh state).[69]
TheChaulukyas (also called Solankis) was another Rajput dynasty InGujarat,Anhilwara (modernSiddhpur Patan) served as their capital.[70]Gujarat was a major center ofIndian Ocean trade, and Anhilwara was one of the largest cities in India, with population estimated at 100,000 in the year 1000. The Chaulukyas were patrons of the great seaside temple ofShiva atSomnath Patan inKathiawar; Bhima Dev helped rebuild the temple after it was sacked byMahmud of Ghazni in 1026. His son,Karna, conquered theBhil king Ashapall or Ashaval, and after his victory established a city namedKarnavati on the banks of theSabarmati River, at the site of modernAhmedabad.
Tomaras of Delhi was aRajput Clan during 9th to 12th century.[71] TheTomaras of Delhi ruled parts of the present-dayDelhi andHaryana.[31] Much of the information about this dynasty comes from bardic legends of little historical value, and therefore, the reconstruction of their history is difficult.[72] According to the bardic tradition, the dynasty's founder Anangapal Tuar (that is Anangapala I Tomara) founded Delhi in 736 CE.[73] However, the authenticity of this claim is doubtful.[72] The bardic legends also state that the last Tomara king (also named Anangapal) passed on the throne of Delhi to his maternal grandsonPrithviraj Chauhan. This claim is also inaccurate: historical evidence shows that Prithviraj inherited Delhi from his fatherSomeshvara.[72] According to theBijolia inscription of Someshvara, his brotherVigraharaja IV had captured Dhillika (Delhi) and Ashika (Hansi); he probably defeated a Tomara ruler.[74]
The Gahadavala dynasty ruled parts of the present-dayIndian states ofUttar Pradesh andBihar, during the 11th and 12th centuries. Their capital was located atVaranasi in theGangetic plains.[75]
The Khayaravala dynasty ruled parts of the present-dayIndian states ofBihar andJharkhand, during 11th and 12th centuries. Their capital was located at Khayaragarh inShahabad district.Pratapdhavala andShri Pratapa were king of the dynasty according to inscription ofRohtas.[76]
Pratihars ruled from Mandore, near present-day Jodhpur, they held the title of Rana before being defeated by Guhilots of Chittore.
Pala Empire was aBuddhist dynasty that ruled from the north-eastern region of theIndian subcontinent. The namePala (ModernBengali:পালpal) meansprotector and was used as an ending to the names of all Pala monarchs. The Palas were followers of theMahayana andTantric schools of Buddhism.Gopala was the first ruler from the dynasty. He came to power in 750 CE inGaur by ademocratic election. This event is recognized as one of the first democratic elections in South Asia since the time of theMahā Janapadas. He reigned from 750 to 770 CE and consolidated his position by extending his control over all ofBengal. TheBuddhistdynasty lasted for four centuries (750–1120 CE) and ushered in a period of stability and prosperity inBengal. They created many temples and works of art as well as supported the Universities ofNalanda andVikramashila.Somapura Mahavihara built byDharmapala is the greatestBuddhistVihara in theIndian Subcontinent.
The empire reached its peak underDharmapala andDevapala. Dharmapala extended the empire into the northern parts of theIndian Subcontinent. This triggered once again the power struggle for the control of the subcontinent.Devapala, successor of Dharmapala, expanded the empire to cover much of South Asia and beyond. His empire stretched fromAssam andUtkala in the east,Kamboja (modern-dayAfghanistan) in the north-west andDeccan in the south. According to Pala copperplate inscription Devapala exterminated the Utkalas, conquered the Pragjyotisha (Assam), shattered the pride of theHuna, and humbled the lords ofGurjaras (theGurjara-Pratiharas) and theDravidas.
The death of Devapala ended the period of ascendancy of the Pala Empire and several independent dynasties and kingdoms emerged during this time. However,Mahipala I rejuvenated the reign of the Palas. He recovered control over all of Bengal and expanded the empire. He survived the invasions ofRajendra Chola and theChalukyas. After Mahipala I the Pala dynasty again saw its decline untilRamapala, the last great ruler of the dynasty, managed to retrieve the position of the dynasty to some extent. He crushed theVarendra rebellion and extended his empire farther toKamarupa, Odisha and Northern India.
The Pala Empire can be considered as the golden era of Bengal. Palas were responsible for the introduction ofMahayana Buddhism inTibet,Bhutan andMyanmar. The Palas had extensive trade and influence insouth-east Asia. This can be seen in the sculptures and architectural style of theSailendra Empire (present-dayMalaya,Java,Sumatra).
In 1097 AD, the Karnat dynasty of Mithila emerged on the Bihar/Nepal border area and maintained capitals inDarbhanga andSimraongadh. The dynasty was established byNanyadeva, a military commander of Karnataka-origin. Under this dynasty, theMaithili language started to develop with the first piece of Maithili literature, theVarna Ratnakara being produced in the 14th century by Jyotirishwar Thakur. The Karnats also carried out raids intoNepal. They fell in 1324 following the invasion ofGhiyasuddin Tughlaq.[77]
TheCandra Dynasty who ruled over easternBengal and were contemporaries of the Palas.
TheEastern Ganga dynasty rulers reigned overKaḷinga which consisted of the parts of the modern-day Indian states ofOdisha,West Bengal,Jharkhand,Chhattisgarh, Madhya Pradesh andAndhra Pradesh from the 11th century to the early 15th century.[78] Their capital was known by the name Kalinganagar, which is the modernSrimukhalingam in Srikakulam District ofAndhra Pradesh borderingOdisha. Today they are most remembered as the builders of theKonark Sun Temple aWorld Heritage Site atKonark,Odisha. It was built by King Narasimhadeva I (1238–1264 CE). During their reign (1078–1434 CE) a new style of temple architecture came into being, commonly called as Indo-Aryan architecture. This dynasty was founded by King Anantavarma Chodaganga Deva (1078–1147 CE). He was a religious person and a patron of art and literature. He is credited for having built the famousJagannath Temple of Puri inOdisha.
_13th_century%2c_Eastern_Ganga_Dynasty%2c_Orissa%2c_India.jpg)
King Anantavarman Chodagangadeva was succeeded by a long line of illustrious rulers such asNarasimhadeva I (1238–1264 CE). The rulers of Eastern Ganga dynasty not only defended their kingdom from the constant attacks of theMuslim rulers from both northern and southern India but were perhaps one of the few empires to have successfully invaded and defeated their Muslim adversaries. The Eastern Ganga King Narasimha Deva I invaded the Muslim kingdom of Bengal and handed a heavy defeat to the Sultan. This ensured that Sultanate never encroached upon the domains of the Ganga Emperors for nearly a century. His military exploits still survive today as folklore in Odisha. This kingdom prospered through trade and commerce and the wealth was mostly used in the construction of temples. The rule of the dynasty came to end under the reign of King Bhanudeva IV (1414–1434 CE), in the early 15th century.
The Palas were followed by theSena dynasty who broughtBengal under one ruler during the 12th century.Vijay Sen the second ruler of this dynasty defeated the lastPala emperorMadanapala and established his reign.Ballal Sena introducedKulīna System in Bengal and madeNabadwip the capital. The fourth king of this dynastyLakshman Sen expanded the empire beyond Bengal toBihar,Assam, northernOdisha and probably toVaranasi. Lakshman was later defeated by theMuslims and fled to eastern Bengal where he ruled few more years. The Sena dynasty brought a revival ofHinduism and cultivatedSanskrit literature in India.
TheVarman Dynasty (not to be confused with theVarman dynasty of Kamarupa) ruled over easternBengal and were contemporaries of the Senas.
TheKāmarūpa, also calledPragjyotisha, was one of the historical kingdoms ofAssam alongsideDavaka,[79]: 248 Davaka (Nowgong) and Kamarupa as separate and submissive friendly kingdoms. that existed from 350 to 1140 CE. Ruled by three dynasties from their capitals in present-dayGuwahati,North Guwahati andTezpur, it at its height covered the entireBrahmaputra Valley,North Bengal,Bhutan and parts ofBangladesh, and at times portions ofWest Bengal andBihar.[80]
TheVarman dynasty (350–650 CE), the first historical rulers ofKamarupa; was established byPushyavarman, a contemporary ofSamudragupta.[81] While Pushyavarman was the contemporary of the Gupta Emperor Samudra Gupta, Bhaskaravarman was the contemporary of Harshavardhana of Kanauj.[82] This dynasty became vassals of theGupta Empire, but as the power of the Guptas waned,Mahendravarman (470–494 CE) performed twoAshvamedha (horse sacrifices) and threw off the imperial yoke.[c] The first of the three Kamarupa dynasties, the Varmans were followed by theMlechchha and then thePala dynasties.
TheMlechchha dynasty succeeded the Varman dynasty and ruled to the end of the 10th century. They ruled from their capital in the vicinity of the Harrupeshwara (Tezpur). The rulers were aboriginals, with lineage fromNarakasura. According to historical records, there were ten rulers in this dynasty. The Mlechchha dynasty in Kamarupa was followed by the Pala kings.
ThePala dynasty of Kamarupa succeeded the Mlechchha dynasty, ruled from its capital atDurjaya (North Gauhati). Dynasty reigned till the end of the 12th century.
Brahma Pala (900–920 CE), was founder Pala dynasty (900–1100 CE) of Kamarupa. Dynasty ruled from its capitalDurjaya, modern-dayNorth Guwahati. The greatest of the Pala kings,Dharma Pala had his capital at Kamarupa Nagara, now identified withNorth Guwahati.Ratna Pala was another notable sovereign of this line. Records of his land-grants have been found at Bargaon andSualkuchi, while a similar relic ofIndra Pala, has been discovered at Guwahati. Pala dynasty come to end withJaya Pala (1075–1100 CE).[83]
TheTwipra Kingdom ruled ancientTripura. Kingdom was established around the confluence of the Brahmaputra river with the Meghna and Surma rivers in today's Central Bangladesh area. The capital was called Khorongma and was along the Meghna river in the Sylhet Division of present-day Bangladesh.
In the first half of the millennium the South saw various small kingdoms rise and fall mostly independent to the turmoil in the Gangetic plains and the spread of theBuddhism andJainism to the southern tip of India. From the mid-seventh to the mid-13th centuries,regionalism was the dominant theme of political and dynastic history of the Indian subcontinent. Three features commonly characterize the sociopolitical realities of this period.
Peninsular India was involved in an 8th-century tripartite power struggle among theChalukyas (556–757 CE), thePallavas (300–888 CE) ofKanchipuram, and thePandyas. The Chalukya rulers were overthrown by their subordinates, theRashtrakutas (753–973 CE). Although both thePallava andPandya kingdoms were enemies, the real struggle for political domination was between thePallava andChalukya realms.
The emergence of theRashtrakutas heralded a new era in the history of South India. South Indian kingdoms had hitherto ruled areas only up to and south of theNarmada River. It was theRashtrakutas who first forged north to the Gangetic plains and successfully contested their might against thePalas of Bengal and theRajputPrathiharas ofGujarat.
Despite interregional conflicts, local autonomy was preserved to a far greater degree in the south where it had prevailed for centuries. The absence of a highly centralized government was associated with a corresponding local autonomy in the administration of villages and districts. Extensive and well-documented overland and maritime trade flourished with theArabs on the west coast and withSoutheast Asia. Trade facilitated cultural diffusion in Southeast Asia, where local elites selectively but willingly adopted Indian art, architecture, literature, and social customs.
The interdynastic rivalry and seasonal raids into each other's territory notwithstanding, the rulers in theDeccan and South India patronized all three religions -Buddhism,Hinduism, andJainism. The religions vied with each other for royal favor, expressed in land grants but more importantly in the creation of monumental temples, which remain architectural wonders. The cave temples ofElephanta Island (nearMumbai orBombay, as it was known formerly),Ajanta, andEllora (in Maharashtra), and structural temples ofPattadakal,Aihole,Badami in Karnataka andMahaballipuram andKanchipuram in Tamil Nadu are enduring legacies of otherwise warring regional rulers.
By the mid-7th century,Buddhism andJainism began to decline as sectarianHindu devotional cults ofShiva andVishnu vigorously competed for popular support.
AlthoughSanskrit was the language of learning and theology in South India, as it was in the north, the growth of thebhakti (devotional) movements enhanced the crystallization ofvernacular literature inDravidian languages:Kannada andTamil; they often borrowed themes and vocabulary from Sanskrit but preserved much local cultural lore. Examples of Tamil literature include two major poems,Cilappatikaram (The Jewelled Anklet) andManimekalai (The Jewelled Belt); the body of devotional literature ofJain andBuddhist and also Hindu devotional movements; and the reworking of theRamayana by Kamban in the 12th century. A nationwide cultural synthesis had taken place with a minimum of common characteristics in the various regions of South Asia, but the process of cultural infusion and assimilation would continue to shape and influence India's history through the centuries.
Farther south were three ancient Tamil states —Chera (on the west),Chola (on the east), andPandya (in the south). They were involved in internecine warfare seeking regional supremacy. They are mentioned in Greek and Ashokan sources as important Indian kingdoms beyond the Mauryan Empire. A corpus of ancientTamil literature, known asSangam (academy) works, provides much useful information about life in these kingdoms in the era 300 BCE to 200 CE.
Tamil social order was based on different ecoregions. Segments of society were characterized bymatriarchy and matrilineal succession—which survived well into the 19th century—cross-cousin marriage, and strong regional identity. Tribal chieftains emerged as "kings" just as people moved from pastoralism toward agriculture sustained by irrigation based on rivers by small-scale water tanks (as man-made ponds are called in India) and wells, as well as maritime trade with Rome andSoutheast Asia.
Discoveries of Roman gold coins in various sites attest to extensiveSouth Indian links with the outside world. As withPataliputra in the northeast andTaxila in the northwest (in modern Pakistan), the city ofMadurai, the capital of thePandyan Kingdom (in modernTamil Nadu), was the center of intellectual and literary activity. Poets and bards assembled there under royal patronage at successive concourses to composed anthologies of poems and expositions onTamil grammar. By the end of the 1st century BCE, South Asia was crisscrossed by overland trade routes, which facilitated the movements of Buddhist andJain missionaries and other travelers and opened the area to a synthesis of many cultures.
From early pre-historic times, Kerala and Tamil Nadu were the homes of the four Tamil-Malayalam states of theChera,Chola,Pandya andPallavas. The oldest extantliterature, dated between 300 BCE and 600 CE mentions the exploits of the kings and the princes, and of the poets who extolled them. Cherans, who spoke Tamil language ruled from the capitals ofKuttanad,Muziris,Karur, and traded extensively with West Asian kingdoms.
An unknown dynasty calledKalabhras invaded and displaced the threeTamil kingdoms between the 4th and the 7th centuries. This is referred to as the Dark Age inTamil history. They were eventually expelled by thePallavas and thePandyas.
Little of their origins or the time during which they ruled is known beyond that they ruled over the entirety of the southern tip of India during the 3rd to the 6th century, overcoming theSangam era kingdoms. The appear to be patrons ofJainism andBuddhism as the only source of information on them is the scattered mentions in the manyBuddhist andJain literature of the time. They were contemporaries of theKadambas and theWestern Ganga Dynasty. They were overcome by the rise of thePallavas and the resurgence of thePandyan Kingdom.
TheKadamba Dynasty (Kannada:ಕದಂಬರು) (345–525 CE) was an ancient royal family ofKarnataka that ruled fromBanavasi in present-dayUttara Kannada district. The dynasty later continued to rule as a feudatory of largerKannada empires, theChalukya and theRashtrakuta empires for over five hundred years during which time they branched intoGoa andHanagal. At the peak of their power under King Kakushtavarma, they ruled large parts of Karnataka. During the pre-Kadamba era the ruling families that controlled Karnataka, theMauryas,Satavahanas and Chutus were not natives of the region and the nucleus of power resided outside present day Karnataka. The Kadambas were the first indigenous dynasty to use Kannada, the language of the soil at an administrative level. In the history of Karnataka, this era serves as a broad based historical starting point in the study of the development of region as an enduring geo-political entity and Kannada as an important regional language.
The dynasty was founded byMayurasharma in 345 which at times showed the potential of developing into imperial proportions, an indication to which is provided by the titles and epithets assumed by its rulers. One of his successors,Kakusthavarma was a powerful ruler and even the kings of imperialGupta Dynasty of northern India cultivated marital relationships with his family, giving a fair indication of the sovereign nature of their kingdom. Tiring of the endless battles and bloodshed, one of the later descendants, King Shivakoti adopted Jainism. The Kadambas were contemporaries of theWestern Ganga Dynasty ofTalakad and together they formed the earliest native kingdoms to rule the land with absolute autonomy.
TheWestern Ganga Dynasty (350–1000 CE) (Kannada:ಪಶ್ಚಿಮ ಗಂಗ ಸಂಸ್ಥಾನ) was an important ruling dynasty of ancientKarnataka in India. They are known asWestern Gangas to distinguish them from theEastern Gangas, who in later centuries ruled over modernOdisha. The general belief is the Western Gangas began their rule during a time when multiple native clans asserted their freedom due to the weakening of thePallava dynasty ofSouth India, a geo-political event sometimes attributed to the southern conquests ofSamudragupta. The Western Ganga sovereignty lasted from about 350 to 550 CE, initially ruling fromKolar and later moving their capital toTalakad on the banks of theKaveri in modernMysore district.
After the rise of the imperialChalukya dynasty ofBadami, the Gangas accepted Chalukya overlordship and fought for the cause of their overlords against the Pallavas ofKanchipuram. The Chalukyas were replaced by theRashtrakutas ofManyakheta in 753 CE as the dominant power in theDeccan. After a century of struggle for autonomy, the Western Gangas finally accepted Rashtrakuta overlordship and successfully fought alongside them against their foes, theChola dynasty ofTanjavur. In the late 10th century, north of Tungabhadra river, the Rashtrakutas were replaced by the emerging Western Chalukya Empire and the Chola Dynasty saw renewed power south of theKaveri. The defeat of the Western Gangas by Cholas around 1000 resulted in the end of Ganga influence over the region.
Though territorially a small kingdom, the Western Ganga contribution to polity, culture and literature of the modern south Karnataka region is considered important. The Western Ganga kings showed benevolent tolerance to all faiths but are most famous for their patronage towardsJainism resulting in the construction of monuments in places such asShravanabelagola andKambadahalli. The kings of this dynasty encouraged the fine arts due to which literature in Kannada andSanskrit flourished.Chavundaraya's writing,Chavundaraya Purana of 978 CE, is an important work in Kannada prose. Many classics were written on subjects ranging fromreligious topics toelephant management.
TheChalukya Empire, natives of theAihole andBadami region in Karnataka, were at first a feudatory of the Kadambas.[84][85]Jayasimha and Ranaraga, ancestors of Pulakeshin I, were administrative officers in the Badami province under the Kadambas (Fleet in Kanarese Dynasties, p. 343),[incomplete short citation][86][87][88][89] They encouraged the use of Kannada in addition to the Sanskrit language in their administration.[d][e] In the middle of the 6th century the Chalukyas came into their own whenPulakeshin I made the hill fortress in Badami his center of power.[92] During the rule ofPulakeshin II a south Indian empire sent expeditions to the north past theTapti River andNarmada River for the first time and successfully defied Harshavardhana, the King of Northern India (Uttarapatheswara). TheAihole inscription of Pulakeshin II, written in classical Sanskrit language and old Kannada script dated 634,[f][94] proclaims his victories against the Kingdoms of Kadambas, Western Gangas,Alupas of South Canara,Mauryas of Puri,Kingdom of Kosala,Malwa,Lata and Gurjaras of southernRajasthan. The inscription describes how King Harsha ofKannauj lost hisHarsha (joyful disposition) on seeing a large number of his war elephants die in battle against Pulakeshin II.[95][96][97][g]
These victories earned him the titleDakshinapatha Prithviswamy (lord of the south). Pulakeshin II continued his conquests in the east where he conquered all kingdoms in his way and reached theBay of Bengal in present-day Odisha. A Chalukya viceroyalty was set up in Gujarat and Vengi (coastal Andhra) and princes from the Badami family were dispatched to rule them. Having subdued the Pallavas of Kanchipuram, he accepted tributes from thePandyas ofMadurai,Chola dynasty andCheras of the Kerala region. Pulakeshin II thus became the master of India, south of the Narmada River.[100] Pulakeshin II is widely regarded as one of the great kings in Indian history.[89][101]Hiuen-Tsiang, aChinese traveller visited the court of Pulakeshin II at this time andPersian emperorKhosrau II exchanged ambassadors.[h] However, the continuous wars withPallavas took a turn for the worse in 642 when the Pallava kingNarasimhavarman I avenged his father's defeat,[103] conquered and plundered thecapital of Pulakeshin II who may have died in battle.[103][104] A century later, ChalukyaVikramaditya II marched victoriously intoKanchipuram, the Pallava capital and occupied it on three occasions, the third time under the leadership of his son and crown prince Kirtivarman II. He thus avenged the earlier humiliation of the Chalukyas by the Pallavas and engraved aKannada inscription on the victory pillar at the Kailasanatha Temple.[105][106][107][108] He later overran the other traditional kingdoms of Tamil country, the Pandyas, Cholas and Keralas in addition to subduing aKalabhra ruler.[109]
TheKappe Arabhatta record from this period (700) intripadi (three line) metre is considered the earliest available record in Kannada poetics. The most enduring legacy of the Chalukya dynasty is the architecture and art that they left behind.[110][incomplete short citation] More than one hundred and fifty monuments attributed to them, built between 450 and 700, have survived in theMalaprabha basin in Karnataka, over 125 temples exist in Aihole alone.[111] The constructions are centred in a relatively small area within the Chalukyan heartland. The structural temples atPattadakal, aUNESCOWorld Heritage Site, the cave temples ofBadami, the temples atMahakuta and early experiments in temple building atAihole are their most celebrated monuments.[110] Two of the famous paintings atAjanta cave no. 1, "The Temptation of the Buddha" and "The Persian Embassy" are also credited to them.[112][i] Further, they influenced the architecture in far off places like Gujarat andVengi as evidenced in the Nava Brahma temples at Alampur.[113]
The 7th century Tamil Nadu saw the rise of thePallavas underMahendravarman I and his sonMamallaNarasimhavarman I. The Pallavas were not a recognised political power before the 2nd century.[114] It has been widely accepted by scholars that they were originally executive officers under theSatavahana Empire.[115] After the fall of the Satavahanas, they began to get control over parts ofAndhra and the Tamil country. Later they had marital ties with theVishnukundina who ruled over theDeccan. It was around 550 AD under KingSimhavishnu that the Pallavas emerged into prominence. They subjugated the Cholas and reigned as far south as theKaveri River. Pallavas ruled a large portion ofSouth India withKanchipuram as their capital.Dravidian architecture reached its peak during the Pallava rule.[citation needed]Narasimhavarman II built theShore Temple which is aUNESCO World Heritage Site. Many sources describeBodhidharma, the founder of theZen school ofBuddhism in China, as aprince of the Pallava dynasty.[116]
Eastern Chalukyas were aSouth Indian dynasty whose kingdom was located in the present dayAndhra Pradesh. Their capital wasVengi and their dynasty lasted for around 500 years from the 7th century until c. 1130 CE when the Vengi kingdom merged with theChola empire. The Vengi kingdom was continued to be ruled by Eastern Chalukyan kings under the protection of the Chola empire until 1189 CE, when the kingdom succumbed to theHoysalas and theYadavas. They had their capital originally at Vengi now (Pedavegi, Chinavegi and Denduluru) nearEluru of theWest Godavari district end later changed to Rajamahendravaram (Rajamundry).
Eastern Chalukyas were closely related to theChalukyas of Vatapi (Badami). Throughout their history they were the cause of many wars between the more powerfulCholas andWestern Chalukyas over the control of the strategic Vengi country. The five centuries of the Eastern Chalukya rule of Vengi saw not only the consolidation of this region into a unified whole, but also saw the efflorescence ofTelugu culture, literature, poetry and art during the later half of their rule. It can be said to be the golden period ofAndhra history.
Pallavas were replaced by the Pandyas in the 8th century. Their capitalMadurai was in the deep south away from the coast. They had extensive trade links with the Southeast Asian maritime empires ofSrivijaya and their successors. As well as contacts, even diplomatic, reaching as far as theRoman Empire. During the 13th century of the Christian eraMarco Polo mentioned it as therichest empire in existence.[citation needed] Temples likeMeenakshi Amman Temple atMadurai andNellaiappar Temple atTirunelveli are the best examples of Pandyan Temple architecture.[117] The Pandyas excelled in both trade as well as literature and they controlled the pearl fisheries along the South Indian coast, between Sri Lanka and India, which produced some of the finest pearls in the known ancient world.
In the middle of the 8th century the Chalukya rule was ended by their feudatory, the Rashtrakuta family rulers ofBerar (in present-dayAmravati district ofMaharashtra). Sensing an opportunity during a weak period in the Chalukya rule,Dantidurga trounced the great Chalukyan "Karnatabala" (power of Karnata).[j] Having overthrown the Chalukyas, the Rashtrakutas madeManyakheta their capital (modern Malkhed inKalaburagi district).[k] Although the origins of the early Rashtrakuta ruling families in central India and the Deccan in the 6th and 7th centuries is controversial, during the eighth through the 10th centuries they emphasised the importance of the Kannada language in conjunction with Sanskrit in their administration. Rashtrakuta inscriptions are in Kannada and Sanskrit only. They encouraged literature in both languages and thus literature flowered under their rule.[l][124][125]: 87 [full citation needed][126][127][128][119]: 37–38
The Rashtrakutas quickly became the most powerful Deccan empire, making their initial successful forays into thedoab region ofGanges River andJamuna River during the rule ofDhruva Dharavarsha.[125]: 89 His victories were a "digvijaya" gaining only fame and booty in that region.[129] The rule of his sonGovinda III signaled a new era with Rashtrakuta victories against thePala Dynasty ofBengal and GurjaraPratihara of north western India resulting in the capture ofKannauj. The Rashtrakutas held Kannauj intermittently during a period of atripartite struggle for the resources of the richGangetic plains.[125]: 90 Because of Govinda III's victories, historians have compared him toAlexander the Great andPandavaArjuna of the Hindu epicMahabharata.[130]The Sanjan inscription states the horses of Govinda III drank the icy water of the Himalayan stream and his war elephants tasted thesacred waters of the Ganges River.[131]Amoghavarsha I, eulogised by contemporary Arab traveller Sulaiman as one among the four great emperors of the world, succeeded Govinda III to the throne and ruled during an important cultural period that produced landmark writings in Kannada and Sanskrit.[125]: 91 [m][132] The benevolent development of Jain religion was a hallmark of his rule. Because of his religious temperament, his interest in the arts and literature and his peace-loving nature,[125]: 91 he has been compared to emperorAshoka.[133] The rule ofIndra III in the 10th century enhanced the Rashtrakuta position as an imperial power as they conquered and held Kannauj again.[125]: 92 [134]Krishna III followed Indra III to the throne in 939. A patron of Kannada literature and a powerful warrior, his reign marked the submission of theParamara ofUjjain in the north and Cholas in the south.[125]: 92–93 [full citation needed]
An Arabic writingSilsilatuttavarikh (851) called the Rashtrakutas one among the four principle empires of the world.[119]: 39 Kitab-ul-Masalik-ul-Mumalik (912) called them the "greatest kings of India" and there were many other contemporaneous books written in their praise.[135][119]: 41–42 The Rashtrakuta empire at its peak spread fromCape Comorin in the south to Kannauj in the north and fromBanaras in the east to Broach (Bharuch) in the west.[136]While the Rashtrakutas built many fine monuments in the Deccan, the most extensive and sumptuous of their work is the monolithic Kailasanatha temple atEllora, the temple being a splendid achievement.[137] In Karnataka their most famous temples are the Kashivishvanatha temple and the Jain Narayana temple at Pattadakal. All of the monuments are designatedUNESCO World Heritage Sites.[138]
In the late 10th century, theWestern Chalukyas, also known as the Kalyani Chalukyas or 'Later' Chalukyas rose to power by overthrowing the Rashtrakutas under whom they had been serving as feudatories.Manyakheta was their capital early on before they moved it to Kalyani (modernBasavakalyan). Whether the kings of this empire belonged to the same family line as their namesakes, theBadami Chalukyas is still debated.[125]: 137 [139] Whatever the Western Chalukya origins, Kannada remained their language of administration and the Kannada and Sanskrit literature of their time was prolific.[140][126][127][128] More inscriptions in Kannada are attributed to the Chalukya KingVikramaditya VI than to any other king prior to the 12th century,[141]Tailapa II, a feudatory ruler from Tardavadi (modernBijapur district), re-established the Chalukya rule by defeating the Rashtrakutas during the reign ofKarka II. He timed his rebellion to coincide with the confusion caused by the invadingParamara of Central India to the Rashtrakutas capital in 973.[142][143] Tailapa II was helped in this campaign by the Kadambas ofHanagal.[144] This era produced prolonged warfare with the Chola dynasty ofTamilakam for control of the resources of theGodavari River–Krishna River doab region inVengi.Someshvara I, a brave Chalukyan king, successfully curtailed the growth of the Chola Empire to the south of theTungabhadra River region despite suffering some defeats[145][146] while maintaining control over his feudatories in the Konkan, Gujarat, Malwa andKaḷinga regions.[147] For approximately 100 years, beginning in the early 11th century, the Cholas occupied large areas of South Karnataka region (Gangavadi).[148] The Cholas occupied Gangavadi from 1004 to 1114.[149]
In 1076 CE, the ascent of the most famous king of this Chalukya family,Vikramaditya VI, changed the balance of power in favour of the Chalukyas.[125]: 139 His fifty-year reign was an important period in Karnataka's history and is referred to as the "Chalukya Vikrama era".[150] His victories over the Cholas in the late 11th and early 12th centuries put an end to the Chola influence in the Vengi region permanently.[125]: 139 Some of the well-known contemporaneous feudatory families of the Deccan under Chalukya control were the Hoysalas, theSeuna Yadavas of Devagiri, theKakatiya dynasty and the Southern Kalachuri.[125]: 139 At their peak, the Western Chalukyas ruled a vast empire stretching from theNarmada River in the north to theKaveri River in the south. Vikramaditya VI is considered one of the most influential kings of Indian history. PoetBilhana in his Sanskrit work wrote "Rama Rajya" regarding his rule; poet Vijnaneshwara called him "A king like none other".[151][152] Important architectural works were created by these Chalukyas, especially in the Tungabhadra river valley, that served as a conceptual link between the building idioms of the early Badami Chalukyas and the later Hoysalas.[153][154][155] With the weakening of the Chalukyas in the decades following the death of Vikramaditya VI in 1126, the feudatories of the Chalukyas gained their independence.
TheKalachuris of Karnataka, whose ancestors were immigrants into the southern deccan from central India, had ruled as a feudatory from Mangalavada (modern Mangalavedhe in Maharashtra).[156]Bijjala II, the most powerful ruler of this dynasty, was a commander (mahamandaleswar) during the reign of Chalukya Vikramaditya VI.[157] Seizing an opportune moment in the waning power of the Chalukyas, Bijjala II declared independence in 1157 and annexed their capitalKalyani.[125]: 139 [158] His rule was cut short by his assassination in 1167 and the ensuing civil war caused by his sons fighting over the throne ended the dynasty as the last Chalukya scion regained control of Kalyani. This victory however, was short-lived as the Chalukyas were eventually driven out by the Seuna Yadavas.[125]: 140 [159]
TheSeuna,Sevuna orYadava dynasty (Marathi: देवगिरीचे यादव,Kannada:ಸೇವುಣರು) (c. 850–1334 CE) was an Indian dynasty, which at its peak ruled a kingdom stretching from theTungabhadra to theNarmada rivers, including present-dayMaharashtra, northKarnataka and parts ofMadhya Pradesh, from its capital at Devagiri (present-dayDaulatabad in Maharashtra). The Yadavas initially ruled as feudatories of theWestern Chalukyas. Around the middle of the 12th century, they declared independence and established rule that reached its peak under Singhana II. The foundations ofMarathi culture was laid by the Yadavas and the peculiarities ofMaharashtra's social life developed during their rule.[citation needed]
TheKakatiya dynasty was a South Indian dynasty that ruledAndhra Pradesh andTelangana, India from 1083 to 1323 CE. They were one of the greatTelugu kingdoms that lasted for centuries.
Kalachuri is the name used by two kingdoms who had a succession of dynasties from the 10th to 12th centuries, one ruling over areas in Central India (westMadhya Pradesh,Rajasthan) and were calledChedi orHaihaya (Heyheya) (northern branch) and the other southern Kalachuri who ruled over parts ofKarnataka. They are disparately placed in time and space. Apart from the dynastic name and perhaps a belief in common ancestry, there is little in known sources to connect them.[citation needed]
The earliest knownKalachuri family of Mahishmati (550–620 CE) ruled over northernMaharashtra, Malwa and western Deccan. Their capital was Mahismati situated in the Narmada river valley. There were three prominent members; Krishnaraja, Shankaragana and Buddharaja. They distributed coins and epigraphs around this area.[160]
Kalachuris of Kalyani or the southern Kalachuris (1130–1184 CE) at their peak ruled parts of theDeccan extending over regions of present-dayNorth Karnataka and parts ofMaharashtra. This dynasty rose to power in the Deccan between 1156 and 1181 CE. They traced their origins toKrishna who was the conqueror ofKalinjar and Dahala inMadhya Pradesh. It is said thatBijjala a viceroy of this dynasty established the authority overKarnataka. He wrested power from theChalukya king Taila III. Bijjala was succeeded by his sons Someshwara and Sangama but after 1181 CE, theChalukyas gradually retrieved the territory. Their rule was a short and turbulent and yet very important from the socio-religious movement point of view; a new sect called theLingayat orVirashaiva sect was founded during these times.[160]
A unique and purely native form ofKannada literature-poetry called theVachanas was also born during this time. The writers ofVachanas were calledVachanakaras (poets). Many other important works like Virupaksha Pandita'sChennabasavapurana, Dharani Pandita'sBijjalarayacharite and Chandrasagara Varni'sBijjalarayapurana were also written.
Kalachuris of Tripuri (Chedi) ruled in central India with its base at the ancient city of Tripuri (Tewar); it originated in the 8th century, expanded significantly in the 11th century, and declined in the 12th–13th centuries.
The Hoysalas had become a powerful force even during their rule fromBelur in the 11th century as a feudatory of the Chalukyas (in the south Karnataka region).[161] In the early 12th century they successfully fought the Cholas in the south, convincingly defeating them in the battle ofTalakad and moved their capital to nearbyHalebidu.[162][163] Historians refer to the founders of the dynasty as natives ofMalnad Karnataka, based on the numerous inscriptions calling themMaleparolganda or "Lord of the Male (hills) chiefs" (Malepas).[161][164][165][166][167][n] With the waning of the Western Chalukya power, the Hoysalas declared their independence in the late 12th century.
During this period of Hoysala control, distinctive Kannada literary metres such asRagale (blank verse),Sangatya (meant to be sung to the accompaniment of a musical instrument),Shatpadi (seven line) etc. became widely accepted.[126][127][128][168][169][170] The Hoysalas expanded theVesara architecture stemming from the Chalukyas,[171]culminating in the Hoysala architectural articulation and style as exemplified in the construction of theChennakesava Temple at Belur and theHoysaleswara temple at Halebidu.[172] Both these temples were built in commemoration of the victories of the HoysalaVishnuvardhana against the Cholas in 1116.[173][174]Veera Ballala II,[o] the most effective of the Hoysala rulers, defeated the aggressive Pandya when they invaded the Chola kingdom and assumed the titles "Establisher of the Chola Kingdom"(Cholarajyapratishtacharya), "Emperor of the south" (Dakshina Chakravarthi) and "Hoysala emperor" (Hoysala Chakravarthi). The Hoysalas extended their foothold in areas known today as Tamil Nadu around 1225, making the city of Kannanur Kuppam nearSrirangam a provincial capital.[162] This gave them control over South Indian politics that began a period of Hoysala hegemony in the southern Deccan.[177][178]
In the early 13th century, with the Hoysala power remaining unchallenged, the first of theMuslim incursions intoSouth India began. After over two decades of waging war against a foreign power, the Hoysala ruler at the time,Veera Ballala III, died in the battle ofMadurai in 1343.[179] This resulted in the merger of the sovereign territories of the Hoysala empire with the areas administered byHarihara I, founder of theVijayanagara Empire, located in the Tungabhadra region in present-day Karnataka. The new kingdom thrived for another two centuries withVijayanagara as its capital.[p]
By the 9th century, underRajaraja Chola and his sonRajendra Chola, the Cholas rose as a notable power in south Asia. TheChola Empire stretched as far asBengal. At its peak, the empire spanned almost 3,600,000 km2 (1,389,968 sq mi). Rajaraja Chola conquered all of peninsularSouth India and parts ofSri Lanka.Rajendra Chola's navies went even further, occupying coasts from Burma (nowMyanmar) toVietnam, theAndaman and Nicobar Islands,Lakshadweep,Sumatra,Java,Malaya in South East Asia and Pegu islands. He also conquered the rest of the Sri Lanka.[181]He defeatedMahipala, the king of the Bengal, and to commemorate his victory he built a new capital and named itGangaikonda Cholapuram.[citation needed]
The Cholas excelled in building magnificent temples.Brihadeshwara Temple inThanjavur is a classical example of the magnificentarchitecture of the Chola kingdom. Brihadshwara temple is anUNESCO Heritage Site under "Great Living Chola Temples".[182] Another example is theChidambaram Temple in the heart of the temple town ofChidambaram.
This article incorporates text from this source, which is in thepublic domain. Country Studies.Federal Research Division. –India
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