This article is about the district within London. For the capital city of England and the UK, seeLondon. For other uses, seeCity of London (disambiguation).
Nicknamedthe Square Mile, the City of London has an area of 1.12 sq mi (716.80 acres; 2.90 km2), making it thesmallest city in the United Kingdom. It had a population of 8,583 at the2021 census,[1][2] however over 500,000 people were employed in the area as of 2019.[3][4]
The Roman legions established a settlement known as "Londinium" on the current site of the City of London around AD 43. Its bridge over the River Thames turned the city into aroad nexus and majorport, serving as a major commercial centre inRoman Britain until its abandonment duringthe 5th century. Archaeologist Leslie Wallace notes that, because extensive archaeological excavation has not revealed any signs of a significantpre-Roman presence, "arguments for a purely Roman foundation of London are now common and uncontroversial."[5]
At its height, the Roman city had a population of approximately 45,000–60,000 inhabitants. Londinium was an ethnically diverse city, with inhabitants from across the Roman Empire, including natives of Britannia,continental Europe, the Middle East, and North Africa.[6] The Romans built the London Wall some time between AD 190 and 225. The boundaries of the Roman city were similar to those of the City of London today, though the City extends further west than Londinium'sLudgate, and the Thames was undredged and thus wider than it is today, with Londinium's shoreline slightly north of the City's present shoreline. The Romans built a bridge across the river, as early as AD 50, near to today's London Bridge.
By the time the London Wall was constructed, the City's fortunes were in decline, and it faced problems of plague and fire. The Roman Empire entered a long period ofinstability and decline, including theCarausian Revolt in Britain. In the 3rd and 4th centuries, the City was under attack fromPicts, Scots, andSaxon raiders. The decline continued, both for Londinium and the Empire, and in AD 410 the Romans withdrew entirely from Britain. Many of the Roman public buildings in Londinium by this time had fallen into decay and disuse, and gradually after the formal withdrawal the City became almost (if not, at times, entirely) uninhabited. The centre of trade and population moved away from the walled Londinium toLundenwic ("London market"), a settlement to the west, roughly in the modern-dayStrand/Aldwych/Covent Garden area.[citation needed]
During the Anglo-SaxonHeptarchy, the London area came in turn under the Kingdoms ofEssex,Mercia, and laterWessex, though from the mid 8th century it was frequently under threat from raids by different groups including theVikings.
Bede records that in AD 604St Augustine consecratedMellitus as the first bishop to theAnglo-Saxon kingdom of theEast Saxons and their king,Sæberht. Sæberht's uncle and overlord,Æthelberht, king ofKent, built a church dedicated to St Paul in London, as the seat of the new bishop.[7] It is assumed, although unproven, that this first Anglo-Saxon cathedral stood on the same site as the later medieval and the present cathedrals.[citation needed]
Alfred the Great,King of Wessex occupied and began the resettlement of the old Roman walled area, in 886, and appointed his son-in-lawEarl Æthelred of Mercia over it as part of their reconquest of the Viking occupied parts of England. The refortified Anglo-Saxon settlement was known as ("London Fort", aborough). The historian Asser said that "Alfred, king of the Anglo-Saxons, restored the city of London splendidly ... and made it habitable once more."[8] Alfred's "restoration" entailed reoccupying and refurbishing the nearly deserted Roman walled city, building quays along the Thames, and laying a new city street plan.[9]
Alfred's taking of London and the rebuilding of the old Roman city was a turning point in history, not only as the permanent establishment of the City of London, but also as part of a unifying moment in early England, with Wessex becoming the dominant English kingdom and the repelling (to some degree) of the Viking occupation and raids. While London, and indeed England, were afterwards subjected to further periods of Viking and Danish raids and occupation, the establishment of the City of London and theKingdom of England prevailed.[10]
In the 10th century,Athelstan permitted eightmints to be established, compared with six in his capital,Winchester, indicating the wealth of the city. London Bridge, which had fallen into ruin following the Roman evacuation and abandonment of Londinium, was rebuilt by the Saxons, but was periodically destroyed by Viking raids and storms.
As the focus of trade and population was moved back to within the old Roman walls, the older Saxon settlement of Lundenwic was largely abandoned and gained the name ofEaldwic (the "old settlement"). The name survives today as Aldwych (the "old market-place"), a name of a street and an area of the City of Westminster betweenWestminster and the City of London.
Following theBattle of Hastings,William the Conqueror marched on London, reaching as far asSouthwark, but failed to get across London Bridge or defeat the Londoners. He eventually crossed the River Thames atWallingford, pillaging the land as he went. Rather than continuing the war,Edgar the Ætheling,Edwin of Mercia andMorcar of Northumbria surrendered atBerkhamsted. William granted the citizens of London a charter in 1075; the city was one of a few examples of the English retaining some authority. The city was not covered by theDomesday Book.
William built three castles around the city, to keep Londoners subdued:
Around 1132 the City was given the right to appointits own sheriffs rather than having sheriffs appointed by the monarch. London's chosen sheriffs also served as the sheriffs for the county ofMiddlesex. This meant that the City and Middlesex were regarded as one administratively for addressing crime and keeping the peace (not that the county was a dependency of the city). London's sheriffs continued to serve Middlesex until the county was given its own sheriffs again following theLocal Government Act 1888.[11][12] By 1141 the whole body of the citizenry was considered to constitute a single community. This 'commune' was the origin of theCity of London Corporation and the citizens gained the right to appoint, with the king's consent, a mayor in 1189, and to directly elect the mayor from 1215.
From medieval times, the City has been composed of25 ancient wards, each headed by analderman, who chairsWardmotes, which still take place at least annually. AFolkmoot, for the whole of the City held at the outdoor cross ofSt Paul's Cathedral, was formerly also held. Many of the medieval offices and traditions continue to the present day, demonstrating the unique nature of the City and itsCorporation.
In 1381, thePeasants' Revolt affected London. The rebels took the City and the Tower of London, but the rebellion ended after its leader, Wat Tyler, was killed during a confrontation that included Lord MayorWilliam Walworth. In 1450, rebel forces again occupied the City duringJack Cade's Rebellion before being ousted by London citizens following a bloody battle on London Bridge. In 1550, the area south of London Bridge inSouthwark came under the control of the City with the establishment of the ward ofBridge Without.
The 1666Great Fire as depicted in a 17th-century painting: it showsOld London Bridge at left, churches, houses, and theTower of London at right, as seen from a boat near Tower Wharf
Map showing the extent of the Great Fire of London, which destroyed nearly 80% of the City
The city was burnt severely on a number of occasions, the worst being in 1123 and in theGreat Fire of London in 1666. Both of these fires were referred to asthe Great Fire. After the fire of 1666, a number of plans were drawn up to remodel the city and its street pattern into arenaissance-style city with planned urban blocks, squares and boulevards. These plans were almost entirely not taken up, and the medieval street pattern re-emerged almost intact.
In the 1630s the Crown sought to have the Corporation of the City of London extend its jurisdiction to surrounding areas. In what is sometimes called the "great refusal", the Corporation said no to the King, which in part accounts for its unique government structure to the present.[13]
By the late 16th century, London increasingly became a major centre for banking, international trade and commerce. TheRoyal Exchange was founded in 1565 by SirThomas Gresham as a centre of commerce for London's merchants, and gained Royal patronage in 1571. Although no longer used for its original purpose, its location at the corner ofCornhill andThreadneedle Street continues to be the geographical centre of the city's core of banking and financial services, with theBank of England moving to its present site in 1734, opposite the Royal Exchange. Immediately to the south of Cornhill,Lombard Street was the location from 1691 ofLloyd's Coffee House, which became the world-leading insurance market. London's insurance sector continues to be based in the area, particularly inLime Street.
In 1708,Christopher Wren's masterpiece,St Paul's Cathedral, was completed on his birthday. The first service had been held on 2 December 1697, more than 10 years earlier. It replaced the original St Paul's, which had been completely destroyed in the Great Fire of London, and is considered to be one of the finest cathedrals in Britain and a fine example ofBaroque architecture.
The 18th century was a period of rapid growth for London, reflecting an increasing national population, the early stirrings of theIndustrial Revolution, and London's role at the centre of the evolvingBritish Empire. The urban area expanded beyond the borders of the City of London, most notably during this period towards theWest End and Westminster.
Expansion continued and became more rapid by the beginning of the 19th century, with London growing in all directions. To theEast thePort of London grew rapidly during the century, with the construction of many docks, needed as the Thames at the City could not cope with the volume of trade. The arrival of the railways and theTube meant that London could expand over a much greater area. By the mid-19th century, with London still rapidly expanding in population and area, the City had already become only a small part of the wider metropolis.
St Paul's Cathedral (pictured 1896) dominated the skyline of the City for centuries. Its current structure byChristopher Wren was completed in 1706 after its medieval predecessor burned with much of the City in the Great Fire of 1666.
The City's population fell rapidly in the 19th century and through most of the 20th century, as people moved outwards in all directions to London's vastsuburbs, and many residential buildings were demolished to make way for office blocks. Like many areas of London and other British cities, the City fell victim to large-scale and highly destructive aerial bombing duringWorld War II, especially inthe Blitz. Whilst St Paul's Cathedral survived the onslaught, large swathes of the area did not and the particularly heavy raids of late December 1940 led to afirestorm called theSecond Great Fire of London.
There was a major rebuilding programme in the decades following the war, in some parts (such as at the Barbican) dramatically altering the urban landscape. But the destruction of the older historic fabric allowed the construction of modern and larger-scale developments, whereas in those parts not so badly affected by bomb damage the City retains its older character of smaller buildings. The street pattern, which is still largely medieval, was altered slightly in places, although there is a more recent trend of reversing some of the post-war modernist changes made, such as atPaternoster Square.
The City suffered terrorist attacks including the1993 Bishopsgate bombing (IRA) and the7 July 2005 London bombings (Islamist). In response to the 1993 bombing, a system of road barriers, checkpoints and surveillance cameras referred to as the "ring of steel" has been maintained to control entry points to the City.
The 1970s saw the construction of tall office buildings including the 600-foot (183 m), 47-storeyNatWest Tower, the first skyscraper in the UK. By the 2010s, office space development had intensified in the City, especially in the central, northern and eastern parts, with skyscrapers including30 St. Mary Axe ("the Gherkin"'),Leadenhall Building ("the Cheesegrater"),20 Fenchurch Street ("the Walkie-Talkie"), theBroadgate Tower, theHeron Tower and22 Bishopsgate.
The main residential section of the City today is theBarbican Estate, constructed between 1965 and 1976. TheMuseum of London was based there until March 2023 (it is due to reopen in West Smithfield in 2026),[14] whilst a number of other services provided by the corporation are still maintained on the Barbican Estate.
Guildhall is the ceremonial and administrative centre of the city.Mansion House is the official residence of the Lord Mayor.John Stuttard, Lord Mayor of the City of London 2006–2007, during the Lord Mayor's Show of 2006
The City has a unique political status, a legacy of its uninterrupted integrity as acorporate city since the Anglo-Saxon period and its singular relationship with theCrown. Historically its system of government was not unusual, but it was not reformed by theMunicipal Corporations Act 1835 and little changed by later reforms, so that it is the only local government in the UK where elections are not run on the basis of one vote for every adult citizen.
It is administered by theCity of London Corporation, headed by theLord Mayor of London (not to be confused with the separateMayor of London, an office created only in the year 2000), which is responsible for a number of functions and has interests in land beyond the city's boundaries. Unlike other English local authorities, the corporation has two council bodies: the (now largely ceremonial)Court of Aldermen and theCourt of Common Council. TheCourt of Aldermen represents the wards, with each ward (irrespective of size) returning one alderman. The chief executive of the Corporation holds the ancient office ofTown Clerk of London.
The City is a ceremonial county which has a Commission of Lieutenancy headed by the Lord Mayor instead of aLord-Lieutenant and hastwo Sheriffs instead of aHigh Sheriff (seelist of Sheriffs of London), quasi-judicial offices appointed by thelivery companies, an ancient political system based on the representation and protection of trades (craft guilds). Senior members of the livery companies are known asliverymen and form the Common Hall, which chooses the lord mayor, the sheriffs and certain other officers.
The City is made up of25 wards. They are survivors of the medieval government system that allowed a very local area to exist as a self-governing unit within the wider city.[15] They can be described as electoral/political divisions; ceremonial, geographic and administrative entities; sub-divisions of the city. Each ward has anAlderman, who until the mid-1960s[16] held office for life but since put themselves up for re-election at least every six years, and are the onlydirectly elected Aldermen in theUnited Kingdom. Wards continue to have aBeadle, an ancient position which is now largely ceremonial and whose main remaining function is the running of an annualWardmote of electors, representatives and officials.[17] At the Wardmote the ward's Alderman appoints at least one Deputy for the year ahead, and Wardmotes are also held during elections. Each ward also has a Ward Club, which is similar to aresidents' association.[18]
The wards are ancient and their number have changed three times:
in 1394Farringdon was divided into Farringdon Within and Farringdon Without
in 1550 the ward of Bridge Without,south of the river, was created, the ward of Bridge becoming Bridge Within;[19]
in 1978 these Bridge wards were merged asBridge ward.[20]
A map of the wards as they were in the late 19th centuryA map of the wards since 2003
Following boundary changes in 1994, and later reform of the business vote in the City, there was a major boundary and electoral representation revision of the wards in 2003, and they were reviewed again in 2010 for change in 2013, though not to such a dramatic extent. The review was conducted by senior officers of the corporation and senior judges of theOld Bailey;[21] the wards are reviewed by this process to avoidmalapportionment. The procedure of review is unique in the United Kingdom as it is not conducted by theElectoral Commission or a local government boundary commission every eight to 12 years, which is the case for all otherwards in Great Britain. Particular churches,livery company halls and other historic buildings and structures are associated with a ward, such as St Paul's Cathedral withCastle Baynard, and London Bridge with Bridge; boundary changes in 2003 removed some of these historic connections.
Each ward elects analderman to theCourt of Aldermen, andcommoners (the City equivalent of acouncillor) to theCourt of Common Council of the corporation. Only electors who areFreemen of the City of London are eligible to stand. The number of commoners a ward sends to the Common Council varies from two to ten, depending on the number of electors in each ward. Since the 2003 review it has been agreed that the four more residential wards:Portsoken,Queenhithe,Aldersgate andCripplegate together elect 20 of the 100 commoners, whereas the business-dominated remainder elect the remaining 80 commoners. Boundary changes in 2003 and 2013 have increased the residential emphasis of the mentioned four wards.
Census data provides eight nominal rather than 25 real wards, all of varying size and population. Being subject to renaming and definition at any time, these census 'wards' are notable in that four of the eight wards accounted for 67% of the 'square mile' and held 86% of the population, and these were in fact similar to and named after four City of London wards:
Extract of census 'wards' where approximate to underlying legal wards[22]
The City has a unique electoral system. Most of its voters are representatives of businesses and other bodies that occupy premises in the city. Its ancient wards have very unequal numbers of voters. In elections, both the businesses based in the city and the residents of the City vote.
The City of London Corporation was not reformed by theMunicipal Corporations Act 1835, because it had a more extensive electoral franchise than any other borough or city; in fact, it widened this further with its own equivalent legislation allowing one to become afreeman without being aliveryman. In 1801, the city had a population of about 130,000, but increasing development of the city as a central business district led to this falling to below 5,000 after the Second World War.[citation needed] It has risen slightly to around 9,000 since, largely due to the development of theBarbican Estate. In 2009, the business vote was about 24,000, greatly exceeding residential voters.[23] As the City of London Corporation has not been affected by other municipal legislation over the period of time since then, its electoral practice has become increasingly anomalous. Uniquely for city or borough elections, its elections remain independent-dominated.
The business or "non-residential vote" was abolished in other UK local council elections by theRepresentation of the People Act 1969, but was preserved in the City of London. The principal reason given by successive UK governments for retaining this mechanism for giving businesses representation, is that the City is "primarily a place for doing business".[24] About 330,000 non-residents constitute the day-time population and use most of its services, far outnumbering residents, who number around 7,000 (2011). By contrast, opponents of the retention of the business vote argue that it is a cause of institutional inertia.[25]
TheCity of London (Ward Elections) Act 2002 (c. vi), a local act of Parliament,[26] reformed the voting system and greatly increased the business franchise, allowing many more businesses to be represented. Under the new system, the number of non-resident voters has doubled from 16,000 to 32,000. Previously disenfranchised firms (and other organisations) are entitled to nominate voters, in addition to those already represented, and all such bodies are now required to choose their voters in a representative fashion. Bodies employing fewer than 10 people may appoint one voter; those employing 10 to 50 people one voter for every five employees; those employing more than 50 people 10 voters and one additional voter for each 50 employees beyond the first 50. The Act also changed other aspects of an earlier act relating to elections in the City, from 1957.
The City has one hospital,St Bartholomew's Hospital, also known as 'Barts'. Founded in 1123, it is located atSmithfield, and is undergoing a long-awaited regeneration after doubts as to its continuing use during the 1990s.
The City is the third largest UK patron of the arts. It oversees theBarbican Centre and subsidises several important performing arts companies.
The size of the City was constrained by a defensive perimeter wall, known as London Wall, which was built by the Romans in the late 2nd century to protect their strategic port city. However the boundaries of the City of London no longer coincide with the old city wall, as the City expanded its jurisdiction slightly over time. During themedieval era, the City's jurisdiction expanded westwards, crossing theRiver Fleet, the historic western border of the original settlement, which was the alongFleet Street toTemple Bar. The City also took in the other "City bars" which were situated just beyond the old walled area, such as at Holborn, Aldersgate,West Smithfield, Bishopsgate and Aldgate. These were the important entrances to the City and their control was vital in maintaining the City's special privileges over certain trades.
Dragon statue on theTemple Bar monument, which marks the boundary between the City of London and City of Westminster
Most of the wall has disappeared, but several sections remain visible. A section near what later became theMuseum of London was revealed after the devastation of an air raid on 29 December 1940 at the height of theBlitz. Other visible sections are atSt Alphage, and there are two sections near theTower of London. The River Fleet wascanalised after the Great Fire of 1666 and then in stages was bricked up and has been since the 18th century one of London's "lost rivers or streams", today underground as astorm drain.
The boundary of the City was unchanged until minor boundary changes on 1 April 1994, when it expanded slightly to the west, north and east, taking small parcels of land from theCity of Westminster, theCamden, theIslington, theHackney and theTower Hamlets. The main purpose of these changes was to tidy up the boundary where it had been rendered obsolete by changes in the urban landscape. In this process the City also lost small parcels of land, though there was an overall net gain (the City grew from 1.05 to 1.12 square miles). Most notably, the changes placed the (then recently developed)Broadgate estate entirely within the City.[33]
Southwark, to the south of the City on the other side of the Thames, was within the City between 1550 and 1899 as the Ward ofBridge Without, a situation connected with theGuildable Manor. The City's administrative responsibility there had in practice disappeared by the mid-Victorian period as various aspects of metropolitan government were extended into the neighbouring areas. Today it is part of theLondon Borough of Southwark. TheTower of London has always been outside the City and comes under theLondon Borough of Tower Hamlets.
The Corporation of the City of London has a fullachievement of armorial bearings consisting of a shield on which the arms are displayed, acrest displayed on a helm above the shield,supporters on either side and a motto displayed on a scroll beneath the arms.[34][35][36]
TheLatin motto of the city is "Domine dirige nos", which translates as "Lord, direct us". It is thought to have been adopted in the 17th century, as the earliest record of it is in 1633.[36][38]
The elevation of the City ranges from sea level at the Thames to 21.6 metres (71 ft) at the junction of High Holborn and Chancery Lane.[40] Two small but notable hills are within the historic core,Ludgate Hill to the west andCornhill to the east. Between them ran theWalbrook, one of the many"lost" rivers or streams of London (another is theFleet).
Modern borders of the City of London, showing surroundingLondon boroughs and the pre-1994 boundary (where changed) in red. The area covered by theInner andMiddle Temple is marked in green.
Beginning in the west, where the City borders Westminster, the boundary crosses theVictoria Embankment from the Thames, passes to the west ofMiddle Temple, then turns for a short distance along the Strand and nearTemple Bar then north upChancery Lane, where it borders Camden. It turns east alongHolborn to Holborn Circus and then goes northeast toCharterhouse Street. As it crossesFarringdon Road it becomes the boundary with Islington. It continues toAldersgate, goes north, and turns east into some back streets soon after Aldersgate becomesGoswell Road, since 1994 embracing all of the corporation's Golden Lane Estate. Here, at Baltic Street West, is the most northerly extent. The boundary includes all of theBarbican Estate and continues east along Ropemaker Street and its continuation on the other side ofMoorgate, becomes South Place. It goes north, reaching the border with Hackney, then east, north, east on back streets, with Worship Street forming a northern boundary, so as to include theBroadgate estate. The boundary then turns south atNorton Folgate and becomes the border withTower Hamlets. It continues south intoBishopsgate, and takes some backstreets to Middlesex Street (Petticoat Lane) where it continues south-east then south. It then turns south-west, crossing theMinories so as to exclude theTower of London, and then reaches the Thames.
The boundary then runs up the centre of the low-tide channel of the Thames, with the exception thatBlackfriars Bridge (including the river beneath and land at its south end) is entirely part of the City, making the City andBorough of Richmond upon Thames the only London districts to span north and south of the river. The span and southern abutment of London Bridge is part of the city for some purposes[41] (and as such is part ofBridge ward).[42]
The boundaries are marked by black bollards bearing the city's emblem, and bydragon boundary marks at major entrances, such as Holborn and the south end of London Bridge. A more substantial monument marks the boundary atTemple Bar on Fleet Street.
In some places, the financial district extends slightly beyond the boundaries, notably to the north and east, into the London boroughs of Tower Hamlets, Hackney and Islington, and informally these locations are regarded as being part of the "Square Mile". Since the 1990s the eastern fringe, extending into Hackney and Tower Hamlets, has increasingly been a focus for large office developments due to the availability of large sites compared to within the city.
The city has no sizeable parks within its boundary, but does have a network of a large number of gardens and small open spaces, many of them maintained by the corporation. These range from formal gardens such as the one inFinsbury Circus, containing abowling green andbandstand, to churchyards such asSt Olave Hart Street, to water features and artwork in courtyards and pedestrianised lanes.[43]
There are a number of private gardens and open spaces, often within courtyards of the larger commercial developments. Two of the largest are those of theInner Temple andMiddle Temple Inns of Court, in the far southwest.
The Thames and its riverside walks are increasingly being valued as open space and in recent years efforts have been made to increase the ability for pedestrians to access and walk along the river.
The nearest weather station has historically been the London Weather Centre atKingsway/Holborn, although observations ceased in 2010. Now St. James Park provides the nearest official readings.
The city has anoceanic climate (Köppen "Cfb") modified by theurban heat island in the centre of London. This generally causes higher night-time minima than outlying areas. For example, the August mean minimum[45] of 14.7 °C (58.5 °F) compares to a figure of 13.3 °C (55.9 °F) for Greenwich[46] and Heathrow[47] whereas is 11.6 °C (52.9 °F) at Wisley[48] in the middle of several square miles ofMetropolitan Green Belt. All figures refer to the observation period 1971–2000.
Accordingly, the weather station holds the record for the UK's warmest overnight minimum temperature, 24.0 °C (75.2 °F), recorded on 4 August 1990.[49] The maximum is 37.6 °C (99.7 °F), set on 10 August 2003.[50] The absolute minimum[51] for the weather station is a mere −8.2 °C (17.2 °F), compared to readings around −15.0 °C (5.0 °F) towards the edges of London. Unusually, this temperature was during a windy and snowy cold spell (mid-January 1987), rather than a cold clear night, cold air drainage is arrested due to the vast urban area surrounding the city.
The station holds the record for the highest British mean monthly temperature,[52] 24.5 °C (76.1 °F) (mean maximum 29.2 °C (84.6 °F), mean minimum 19.7 °C (67.5 °F) during July 2006). However, in terms of daytime maximum temperatures, Cambridge NIAB[53] and Botanical Gardens[54] with a mean maximum of 29.1 °C (84.4 °F), and Heathrow[55] with 29.0 °C (84.2 °F) all exceeded this.
Climate data for London Weather Centre 1971–2000, 43 m asl
The city is apolice area and has its ownpolice force, theCity of London Police, separate from theMetropolitan Police Service covering the majority of Greater London. The City Police previously had three police stations, atSnow Hill,Wood Street andBishopsgate. They now only retain Bishopsgate along with an administrative headquarters at Guildhall Yard East.[57] The force comprises 735 police officers including 273 detectives.[58] It is the smallest territorial police force inEngland and Wales, in both geographic area and the number of police officers.
Where the majority of British police forces have silver-colouredbadges, those of the City of London Police are black and gold featuring the City crest. The force has rarered and white chequered cap bands and unique red and white striped duty arm bands on the sleeves of the tunics of constables and sergeants (red and white being the colours of the city), which in most other British police forces are black and white. City police sergeants and constables wear crestedcustodian helmets whilst on foot patrol. These helmets do not feature eitherSt Edward's Crown or theBrunswick Star, which are used on most other police helmets inEngland and Wales.
The city's position as the United Kingdom's financial centre and a critical part of the country's economy, contributing about 2.5% of the UK'sgross national product,[59] has resulted in it becoming a target for political violence. TheProvisional IRA exploded severalbombs in the early 1990s, including the1993 Bishopsgate bombing.
The area is also spoken of as a possible target foral-Qaeda. For instance, when in May 2004 the BBC'sPanorama programme examined the preparedness of Britain's emergency services for a terrorist attack on the scale of the11 September 2001 attacks, they simulated a chemical explosion onBishopsgate in the east of the city. The"Ring of Steel" was established in the wake of the IRA bombings to guard against terrorist threats.
The city has fire risks in many historic buildings, includingSt Paul's Cathedral,Old Bailey,Mansion House,Smithfield Market, theGuildhall, and also in numerous high-rise buildings. There is one London Fire Brigade station in the city, atDowgate, with onepumping appliance.[60] The City relies upon stations in the surrounding London boroughs to support it at some incidents. The first fire engine is in attendance in roughly five minutes on average, the second when required in a little over five and a half minutes.[60] There were 1,814 incidents attended in the City in 2006/2007, the lowest in Greater London.
TheOffice for National Statistics recorded the population in 2011 as 7,375;[64] slightly higher than in theprevious census, 2001,[65] and estimates the population as at mid-2016 to be 9,401. At the 2001 census the ethnic composition was 84.6%White, 6.8%South Asian, 2.6%Black, 2.3%Mixed, 2.0%Chinese and 1.7% were listed as "other".[65] The population was between 120,000 and 140,000 in the first half of the 19th century, decreasing dramatically from 1851 to 1991, with a small increase between 1991 and 2001. The only notable boundary change since the first census in 1801 occurred in 1994.
The city's full-time working residents have much higher gross weekly pay than in London and Great Britain (England, Wales and Scotland): £773.30 compared to £598.60 and £491.00 respectively.[66] There is a large inequality of income between genders (£1,085.90 in men compared to £653.50 in women), and this can be explained by job type and length of employment respectively.[66] The 2001 Census showed the city as a unique district amongst 376 districts surveyed inEngland andWales.[65] The city had the highest proportional population increase, one-person households, people with qualifications at degree level or higher and the highest indications of overcrowding.[65] It recorded the lowest proportion of households with cars or vans, people who travel to work by car, married couple households and the lowest average household size: just 1.58 people.[65] It also ranked highest within the Greater London area for the percentage of people with no religion and people who are employed.[65]
Demographic Breakdown of the City of London (1981–2021)
London's foreign exchange market has been described by Reuters as 'the crown jewel of London's financial sector'.[74] Of the $3.98 trillion daily global turnover, as measured in 2009, trading in London accounted for around $1.85 trillion, or 46.7% of the total.[73] Thepound sterling, the currency of the United Kingdom, is globally the fourth-most traded currency[75] and the fourth most heldreserve currency.[76]
Canary Wharf, a few miles east of the City in Tower Hamlets, which houses many banks and other institutions formerly located in the Square Mile, has since 1991 become another centre for London's financial services industry. Although growth has continued in both locations,[ambiguous] and there have been relocations in both directions, the Corporation has come to realise that its planning policies may have been causing financial firms to choose Canary Wharf as a location.[citation needed]
In 2022, 12.3% of City of London residents had been granted non-domicile status in order to avoid their paying tax in the UK.[77]
Whilst the financial sector, and related businesses and institutions, continue to dominate, the economy is not limited to that sector. The legal profession has a strong presence, especially in the west and north (i.e., towards theInns of Court). Retail businesses were once important, but have gradually moved to theWest End of London, though it is now Corporation policy to encourage retailing in some locations, for example atCheapside near St Paul's. The city has a number of visitor attractions, mainly based on its historic heritage as well as theBarbican Centre and adjacentMuseum of London, though tourism is not at present a major contributor to the city's economy or character. The city has many pubs, bars and restaurants, and the "night-time" economy does feature in theBishopsgate area, towardsShoreditch. The meat marketat Smithfield, wholly within the city, continues to be one of London's main markets (the only one remaining in central London) and the country's largestmeat market. In the east isLeadenhall Market, a fresh food market that is also a visitor attraction.
The trend for purely office development is beginning to reverse as the Corporation encourages residential use, albeit with development occurring when it arises on windfall sites. The city has a target of 90 additional dwellings per year.[85] Some of the extra accommodation is in small pre-World War IIlisted buildings, which are not suitable for occupation by the large companies which now provide much of the city's employment. Recent residential developments include "the Heron", a high-rise residential building on the Milton Court site adjacent to the Barbican, and theHeron Plaza development on Bishopsgate is also expected to include residential parts.
Since the 1990s, the City has diversified away from near exclusive office use in other ways. For example, several hotels and the firstdepartment store opened in the 2000s. A shopping centre was more recently opened atOne New Change,Cheapside (near St Paul's Cathedral) in October 2010, which is open seven days a week. However, large sections remain quiet at weekends, especially in the eastern section, and it is quite common to find shops,pubs and cafes closed on these days.
Prince Henry's Room and2 King's Bench Walk are notable historic survivors of heavy bombing ofthe Temple area, which has largely been rebuilt to its historic form. Another example of a bomb-damaged place having been restored isStaple Inn on Holborn. A few small sections of the RomanLondon Wall exist, for example near the Tower of London and in the Barbican area. Among the twentieth-centurylisted buildings areBracken House, the first post World War II buildings in the country to be given statutory protection, and the whole of theBarbican andGolden Lane Estate.
A growing number of tall buildings and skyscrapers are principally used by the financial sector. Almost all are situated in the eastern side aroundBishopsgate,Leadenhall Street andFenchurch Street, in the financial core of the city. In the north there is a smaller cluster comprising theBarbican Estate's three tall residential towers and the commercialCityPoint tower. In 2007, the 100 m (328 ft) tallDrapers' Gardens building was demolished and replaced by a shorter tower.
The city's buildings of at least 100 m (328 ft) in height are:
^CityPoint was originally completed in 1967 and named Britannic House standing at 122 m tall, but was refurbished in 2000 and increased to 127 m in height.
Timeline
The timeline of the tallest building in the city is as follows:
TheElizabeth line (constructed by theCrossrail project) runs east–west underneath the City of London. The line serves two stations in or very near the City –Farringdon and Liverpool Street – which additionally serves the Barbican and Moorgate areas. Elizabeth line services link the City directly to destinations such as Canary Wharf,Heathrow Airport, and theM4 Corridor high-technology hub (servingSlough andReading).[89]
Space taken vs numbers in City of London (transport)[93]
The nationalA1,A10A3,A4, andA40 road routes begin in the city. The city is in theLondon congestion charge zone, with the small exception on the eastern boundary of the sections of the A1210/A1211 that are part of theInner Ring Road. The following bridges, listed west to east (downstream), cross the River Thames:Blackfriars Bridge,Blackfriars Railway Bridge,Millennium Bridge (footbridge),Southwark Bridge,Cannon Street Railway Bridge and London Bridge;Tower Bridge is not in the city. The city, like most of central London, is wellserved by buses, including night buses. Two bus stations are in the city, atAldgate on the eastern boundary with Tower Hamlets, and atLiverpool Street by the railway station.However although the London Road Traffic Act 1924 removed from existing local authorities the powers to prevent the development of road passengers transport services within the London Metropolitan Area, the City of London retained most such powers. As a consequence, neither Trolleybus nor Green Line Coach services were permitted to enter the City to pick up or set down passengers. Hence the building of Aldgate (Minories) Trolleybus and Coach station as well as the complex terminal arrangements at Parliament Hill Fields. This restriction was removed by the Transport Act 1985.
Cycle Superhighway 7 begins in the City at an interchange with Cycleway 3. It leaves the City overSouthwark Bridge and provides cyclists with an unbroken, signposted route toColliers Wood via Elephant and Castle,Clapham, andTooting, amongst other destinations.
Quietway 11 is a northbound continuation of Cycleway 7. It is a signposted cycle route which runs from Southwark Bridge toHoxton, via the Barbican and Moorgate.
OneLondon River Services pier is on the Thames in the city,Blackfriars Millennium Pier, though theTower Millennium Pier lies adjacent to the boundary near the Tower of London. One of thePort of London's 25safeguarded wharves,Walbrook Wharf, is adjacent to Cannon Street station, and is used by the corporation to transfer waste via the river. Swan Lane Pier, just upstream of London Bridge, is proposed to be replaced and upgraded for regular passenger services, planned to take place in 2012–2015. Before then, Tower Pier is to be extended.[96]
There is a public riverside walk along the river bank, part of theThames Path, which opened in stages – the route within the city was completed by the opening of a stretch atQueenhithe in 2023.[97] The walk along Walbrook Wharf is closed to pedestrians when waste is being transferred onto barges.
According to a survey conducted in March 2011, the methods by which employed residents 16–74 get to work varied widely: 48.4% go on foot; 19.5% via light rail, (i.e.the Underground,DLR, etc.); 9.2% work mainly from home; 5.8% take the train; 5.6% travel by bus, minibus, or coach; and 5.3% go by bicycle; with just 3.4% commuting by car or van, as driver or passenger.[98]
The city has only one directly maintained primary school,The Aldgate School (formerly Sir John Cass's Foundation Primary School) atAldgate[99] (ages 4 to 11). It is a Voluntary-Aided (VA)Church of England school, maintained by the Education Service of the City of London.
Libraries operated by the Corporation include three lending libraries; Barbican Library, Shoe Lane Library and Artizan Street Library and Community Centre. Membership is open to all – with one official proof of address required to join.
Guildhall Library, and City Business Library are also public reference libraries, specialising in the history of London and business reference resources.[101]
The City of London's role in illicit financial activity such asmoney laundering has earned the financial hub sobriquets such as 'The Laundromat' and 'Londongrad'.[102]
In May 2024, the UK's then deputy foreign secretary,Andrew Mitchell, said that 40% of the dirty money in the world goes through London and crown dependencies.[103]
^Asser'sLife of King Alfred, ch. 83, trans. Simon Keynes and Michael Lapidge,Alfred the Great: Asser's Life of King Alfred & Other Contemporary Sources (Penguin Classics) (1984), pp. 97–8.
^Vince, Alan,Saxon London: An Archaeological Investigation, The Archaeology of London series (1990).
^City of London (Approved Premises for Marriage) Act 1996Archived 8 December 2009 at theWayback Machine "By ancient custom the Honourable Society of the Inner Temple and the Honourable Society of the Middle Temple exercise powers within the areas of the Inner Temple and the Middle Temple respectively ("the Temples") concerning (inter alia) the regulation and governance of the Temples"
^Briggs, Geoffrey (1971).Civic and Corporate Heraldry: A Dictionary of Impersonal Arms of England, Wales and Northern Ireland. London: Heraldry Today. p. 240.ISBN978-0-900455-21-6.
^abcBeningfield, Thomas James (1964).London, 1900–1964: Armorial bearings and regalia of the London County Council, the Corporation of London and the Metropolitan Boroughs. Cheltenham and London: J Burrow & Co Ltd. pp. 21–23.
^abc"The City Arms"(PDF). Corporation of London Records Office. Archived fromthe original(PDF) on 27 September 2011. Retrieved17 April 2011.
^Scott-Giles, C. Wilfrid (1953).Civic Heraldry of England and Wales, 2nd edition. London: J. M. Dent & Sons. pp. 245–246.
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