Chumash traditional medicine is a type oftraditional medicine practiced by theChumash people of thesouthern coastal regions of California.[1]
Chumash medicine focused on treating mind, spirit, and body alike to promote the wellness of both the individual and the larger community. Healing practices included a knowledge oflocal plants, as well as a mix of spiritual practices including prayer, singing, and dancing. Post-European contact, Chumash healers adapted these methods to treat changes in environment and the introduction of deadly diseases. Prevention was key in promoting health, and healers took responsibility for ensuring all people worked and felt valued in the community.
In the modern day, certain medicinal practices are viewed as controversial, including thetreatment of menstruating women, the use of poisonousdatura plant, and the consumption of dangerouspolycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons.
Theclimate of the Chumash territory supported a variety of plant species, many of which were used in medicine. The following list provides a sampling of commonly used plants in Chumash healing practices, but cannot be considered complete.[2]
| Plant | Uses |
|---|---|
| Common yarrow | Toothache, cuts, excessive bleeding |
| Sacapellote | Cough, cold, lung congestion, asthma, constipation |
| Chamise | Childbirth and menstrual complications |
| Ribbonwood (Red shanks) | Toothache,gangrene, cold,tetanus, spasms,lockjaw, paralysis,ulcers, sore throats |
| Maidenhair fern | Blood disorders, regulation of menstruation, bleeding, internal injuries, kidney and liver problems |
| Coffee fern | See maidenhair fern |
| Agave | Boils |
| Wild onion | Appetite stimulant, sores, insect repellant, snake and insect bites |
| Scarlet pimpernel | Disinfectant,eczema,ringworm |
| Yerba mansa | Cuts, sores,rheumatism,venereal disease, cough, cold,asthma, kidney problems |
| Coastal sagebrush | Headache, paralysis,poison oak rash, disinfectant |
| Mugwort | Cauterizing wounds, skin lesions, blisters, rheumatism, headache, toothache, asthma,measles, burns, infections |
| California croton | Colds |
| Coyote brush (Chaparral broom) | Poison oak rash |
| Spurge | Fever,snakebite andspider bites |
| Pineapple weed | Gastrointestinal disorders, regulation of menstruation,dysentery, inflammation, fever |
| Soap plant | Consumption |
| Spineflower | Fever,warts, skin diseases |
| Creek clematis | Ringworm, skin disruptions, venereal disease, colds, sore throat |
| Wild gourd | Purgative, rheumatism,nosebleed, |
| Durango root | Sore throat |
| Toloache (Jimsonweed) | Pain relief, divination |
| Rattlesnake weed | Rattlesnake bite |
| Coastal wood fern | Wounds,sprains, bruises |
| California fuchsia | Cuts, sores, sprains |
| Yerba santa | Colds, chest pain, cough, fever |
| California buckwheat | Rheumatism,irregular menstruation,respiratory problems |
| California poppy | Lice,colic, toothache, stomachache,analgesic |
| Sneezeweed | Colds,flu,scurvy |
| Sticky cinquefoil | Fever, stomach problems,Spanish flu |
| Wedge-leaved horkelia | Seestick cinquefoil |
| California juniper | Rheumatism,genito-urinary disorders |
| Peppergrass | Diarrhea,dysentery |
| Giant rye | Gonnorhea |
| Chuchupate | pain relief, stomachache, flatulence, headache, rheumatism |
| Climbing penstemon | Runny nose, sore throats, wounds |
| Laurel sumac | Dysentery |
| Bull mallow | Colds, cough, fever, stomach problems |
| Cheeseweed | SeeBull mallow |
Certain aspects of Chumash healing practices have been compared to those used inChinese healing. The use of certain healing touches, as well as spiritual practices in healing are well-documented in both cultures. Notably, plants of the samegenus were often used to achieve the same healing effect. For example, the poppiesPapaver californicum in California andPapaver somniferum were used to treat pain. Both species containmorphine andpapaverine, powerfulopiates. Several other medicinal parallels between the two cultures exist, including the use ofditerpenoids andflavones to treat skin irritations andflavonols andtannins for diarrhea.[3]
Both medical philosophies rely on maintaining the balance between two forces;Yin and Yang for the Chinese, a similar Chumash concept being “theSun and Sky Coyote“. In Chinese practice, Yin is theinhibiting force, while Yang is theactivating. The Sun and Sky Coyote personify the dualistic philosophy of the Chumash, the hot sun and cool sky.
As with traditional Chinese medicine treatment principles, balance must be maintained to achieve good health, and treatment for illness usually looks to fortify whichever side is lacking, as determined by a trained healer. This duality is represented in divisions of day and night, male and female, and hot and cold, etc. For example, treatment of diseases caused by excess “cold” would includeplant remedies which “warm” the patient, such as those withadrenergic properties that increaseheart rate andblood flow. This principle was behind the Chumash practices of bathing daily in cold water, as well as usingsweat lodges andhot springs to harness the healing properties of heat.[3]
Some historians[which?] argue thatChinese explorers landed in California in the early 15th century, as well as otherPre-Columbian transoceanic contact theories, but the validity of such claims remain in dispute. However, it is likely thatPolynesian peoples had contact with both the Chinese andIndigenous peoples of California, potentially facilitating the transfer ofherbology.
Still some[who?] maintain that humans innately look toplants as potential medicines, and only those groups which successfully utilize plants are able to survive.[3]
For the Chumash people, spiritual practices played an equally important role as medicinal plants in the healing process.
Body, mind, and spirit were seen as indistinguishable, so treatments had to account for all aspects of the self to be effective. The first remedies focused on the spiritual to open the mind and body to healing.[4]
In Chumash culture, the most important work of thehealer was thought to occur before anyone fell ill by helping foster a balance of tribal values.
Obesity was virtually non-existent, largely due to diet and a culture which did not tolerate laziness, seen to lead to excessive weight gain. By working all day, the Chumash kept physically fit, reducing the prevalence ofcardiovascular disease andhypertension. The value of being an essential part of the community was thought to help strengthen the spirit. Additionally, it was common for the Chumash to bathe regularly, promoting goodhygiene habits and as a preventative against disease.
Healers regularly encouraged these practices, and they themselves practiced routinefasting and prayer in order to strengthen their spirits.[1]
Before treating a patient, the healer would begin with prayer to invite the participation of God (Xoy in Chumash) in the healing process. A patient would often lie beside a fire to benefit from the therapeutic warmth and sound of the flames. As healing was also seen as a communal process, the patient was often joined by family and friends who might offer support by participation in dancing, singing, fasting, and praying.
Generally,white sage wasburned in a seashell to strengthen the spirit and help calm the patient, keeping them in a rational, coherent state. The shell was moved so as to allow the smoke to touch all parts of the patient. Small amounts of "momoy" could be given to those who did not listen well, or had domineering personalities, to help them relax. Humor was another valuable tool for the healer to relieve anxieties and allow the patient's spirit a chance to heal.[4]
Chumash women were respected as life-bringers and nurturers of family and community. As such, there was a variety of practices and treatments to help them throughmenstruation, childbirth,lactation, andmenopause.[5]
Women were kept isolated during menstruation and prohibited from eating meat or drinking cold water for three days. They also could not bathe, despite daily bathing being common in Chumash culture. Instead, they used the leaves ofWooly Bluecurls as douches. White sage was used to control heavy bleeding.Dysmenorrhea andpremenstrual syndrome were treated withmugwort orPaeonia californica. Many treatments could be harmful in large doses and required careful ministrations.[5]
Urinary tract infections were treated with medicinalherbal teas meant to increaseurination and raise thepH of the urine, creating a hostile environment forbacteria. Teas could be made fromEphedra viridis orEphedra californica, as well ascorn silk.[5]
If possible, childbirth took place in a special hut under the guidance of amidwife, though it was not uncommon for pregnant women to give birth on their own if they were too far from the village.
Mugwort was burned asaromatherapy to ease labor pains.Trichostema lanatum andTrichostema lanceolatum also relieved pain and was used to facilitate delivery of theafterbirth. These plants could then be used as a douche. Theumbilical cord was cut with a knife made fromcarrizo cane and ash was spread on the infant'snavel to stop the bleeding. After giving birth, women bathed in cold water.
Husbands were prohibited from touching their wives after childbirth until the child could walk on its own.[5]
Gonorrhea afflicted the Chumash people pre-European contact, but cases of the disease increased with the rise ofSpanish missions, decreasingfertility. Rock powder was believed to increase fertility.Yerba mansa was believed to cure gonorrhea, as well as many other afflictions.Seawater as a source ofsaline and otherhealing minerals was used to treat sores from venereal diseases, as well as medicinal tea made from carrizo cane.[5]
In contrast to the Chumash use ofpsychotropic substances such aspeyote anddatura (jimsonweed) in ritualistic practices, there is no indication that the Chumash used any form offermented alcohol, similarly to otherindigenous peoples throughout North and South America prior toEuropean contact.
As explored bycross-cultural study, the Chumashpredisposition to alcohol abuse does not seem to stem from biological factors, but rather is a product of manysocietal factors.
One major contributor to Chumash alcohol use appears to be the spiritual relationship of the Chumash toaltered states of consciousness from botanical substances, such as datura. In addition, the absence offermented beverages in pre-colonial Chumash society meant an absence of societal norms for dealing with alcohol use, contrary to the methods of prohibition or moderation practiced in most European societies. Thus, when the moderate to heavy drinking found in European frontier communities was introduced to the Chumash and other Native peoples, they were at a much higher risk for abuse.
This high rate of abuse has led to a number ofmodern methods of alleviation, including non-native ones such asAlcoholics Anonymous (AA) and Native practices involving spiritual and communal efforts to break addiction.[6][7]
Research on levels ofalcohol dehydrogenase (ADH) andaldehyde dehydrogenase (ALDH), enzymes responsible for alcohol breakdown and clearance, also indicates no biological predisposition to alcoholism forSouthwest California Native Americans (such as the Chumash). There is evidence of genetic protective elements against alcohol dependence in many Native Americans, which has further discredited theories of its biological inevitability.[8]
1769 marked the beginning ofSpanish military and religious missions to assimilate Chumash in theAlta region of California, roughly around modern-daySanta Barbara. This date also coincides with apparent changes to the Chumash environment and way of life that invoked declines in Chumash health.
Prior to colonization, the Chumash enjoyedecological abundance and diversity even duringcyclical droughts andEl Niño events, indicating a millennia-long period of acclimatization to their environment. However, this stability was significantly altered by European contact.[9]
Traditionally, historical narratives have attributed declines in Chumash health to European oppression. However, this narrative has been replaced by a more nuanced perspective consisting of exacerbated environmental fluctuations fromoverpopulation andover-utilization of natural resources due to Spanish colonization. This effect was in conjunction with the devastating effects ofEuropean diseases on Chumash people, which likely began impacting the Chumash in the late 16th century.
The effect of Spanish overpopulation andresource depletion is documented byCatholic missionary Fr. Gregorio Fernandez in 1803. His letter documents the increasing number of Chumash migrants to Spanish missions, not because of increasing conversions but because of the devastation of Chumash agriculture and plants (particularly their staple of theacorn) caused primarily byoverexploitation of Spanishcattle-grazing. The religious conversion of Chumash also corresponds to documented disease increases and poorer health post-colonization recorded by even the early Spanishconquistadors.[9]
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Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), a chemical product offossil fuels found in substances such as gasoline, tar, and cigarettes, cause adverse health effects such asneurological disorders,hormonal disruptions, andfetal abnormalities.
Before theindustrial era, the predominant form of PAHs was found in naturalbitumen fromfossils, and the Chumash ancestral homeland was of the most concentrated regions of bitumen in the world. They utilized it in myriad materials, including the waterproofing oftomol canoes and water-carrying baskets.
Thus, the Chumash have been a target of interest for research on PAH exposure, owing to their prolific use of PAH-containingbitumen over the previous millennia (with evidence of use in objects as far back as 10,000 years ago).[10]
Wärmländer et al. have studied the skeletons of Chumash between 6500 BCE and the beginning of significant European contact (mid-1700s) and found a number of consistent decreases in Chumash health over the time of bitumen use. Among thesemarkers was systematic decreases in skull size for both males and females over the studied timescale, indicating both decreasedbirthweight andneurological development over millennia.
While such adverse health outcomes are consistent with PAH exposure, some researchers dispute that there is a direct link between bitumen use and decreased Chumash health over millennia. Chumash expert Patricia Lambert ofUtah State University has questioned this hypothesis, citing the need for increased research on the controversial topic.[11]
Cancer is another controversial topic among Chumash researchers and medical professionals, as PAH exposure increases the incidence of cancers.
Chumash methods were developed to deal with cancer management. Spiritual practices, integral to Chumash medicinal practices, sometimes included the use ofhallucinogenic substances, along with techniques such ashypnosis thoughchanting.
It is also hypothesized that a number of plants consumed by the Chumash may have alleviated the harmful effects of PAH exposure, leading to modern theories about botanical and nutritive cancer-prevention substances.[12]
Datura (also calledmomoy by the Chumash) is a hallucinogenic plant commonly consumed as a liquid in traditional Chumash spiritual practice. Early anthropological records indicate adolescent males and females would receive datura from a "giver" when seemed ready for itsrite of passage. Typically, Chumash restrictions on diet and sex would be observed by individuals before ingestion.[13]
The effects of datura often would consist of up to a day of incapacitation, the length of which was viewed to indicate the spiritual strength of the individual. Hallucinations or dreams of animals such ashawks orcoyotes were viewed as marks of a successful datura experience. The effects of datura, however, vary greatly by dosage, and current understanding indicates lasting adverse physiological effects from days or even months after ingestion.[13]
The most significant side-effect of datura can be death, as the lethal dose of the drug is slightly more than the necessary dose to produce hallucinations. Deaths from datura in Chumash communities were often seen as the fault of the drinker, who was assumed to have deviated from the necessary dietary or sexual restrictions, or have chosen to not come back from the experience.[13] For this reason, the use of datura has been criticized as being too dangerous, especially as its use is often begun in adolescence.
