Parols andChristmas lights on display at night. The parol is regarded as one of the most recognizable symbols of the Filipino Christmas season.[1][2]Illuminated Christmas decorations on display at theMisamis Oriental Provincial Capitol
As one of the two predominantlyCatholic countries in Asia (the other beingTimor-Leste), the Philippines is often described as having the world's longestChristmas season (Filipino:Kapaskuhan),[1][3] spanning what are colloquially referred to as the "ber months".[b] WithChristmas music played[4] anddecorations displayed as early as August,[5] the holiday season gradually begins in September, reaches its peak in December duringChristmastide, and concludes within the week afterNew Year's Day.[c][6] Festivities may also extend until the third Sunday of January with the feast of theSanto Niño.[7][8] For some Catholics, the season extends even further, ending only on February 2 with the feast of theCandelaria, marked by cultural observances, religious services, and the traditional removal of decorations.[9]Liturgically, the Christmas season is observed by theCatholic Church from the first day ofAdvent (the fourth Sunday before Christmas)[10] toThree Kings' Day, which falls on the Sunday between January 2 and 8.[d]
Pamamaskó also refers to the practice in which children visit relatives,godparents, and family friends during Christmas, offering greetings and songs in exchange for gifts of money or food. The custom usually takes place after attending Christmas Day Mass.[38][39]
The earliest claims of a Christmas celebration in what is now the Philippines come from a widely disputed legend involving an Italian Franciscan missionary namedOdoric.[40] According to the account, Odoric and his companions were blown off course by a storm and landed in present-dayBolinao,Pangasinan, where they were said to have preached to the inhabitants and celebrated a Catholic Mass on December 25, 1324.[41][42] Later retellings claim that he baptized locals and planted a cross at the site, while others added the detail of aChristmas tree–ananachronism, as this custom would not even become common in Europe until the 19th century.[43]
Bolinao Church, with a plaque in front marking Odoric's alleged 1324 Mass
Before the introduction of Christianity in the 16th century, the peoples of the precolonial Philippines, neither unified into a single polity nor governed by a centralized authority, observed seasonal rituals tied to agricultural calendars andindigenous animist beliefs. Celebrations honoringdeities and ancestral spirits often coincided with planting and harvest cycles, featuring communal feasts, offerings, and music.[50][51] Under Spanish colonial rule, many of these communal rites of feasting and procession were appropriated into Christian celebrations, and pre-Hispanic rituals were gradually supplanted by Catholic observances. Scholars have described this as a process ofsyncretism, suggesting that the integration of indigenous and Christian practices influenced the communal aspects of later Filipino Christmas traditions.[52]
The first documented Christmas celebration in the Philippines took place in December 1565 atFort San Pedro,Cebu, shortly afterMiguel López de Legazpi established the first permanent Spanish settlement there.[53][54][55] As the Spanish consolidated their presence in the archipelago, Catholicism became a central part of Filipino religious life. Over time, indigenous beliefs merged with Christian practices, resulting in distinctively Filipino expressions of the holiday.[citation needed]
One of the most enduring Filipino Christmas traditions isSimbang Gabi (Tagalog for "night Mass"), a series of nine dawn Masses held from December 16 to 24 in anticipation of Christmas. The earliest recorded observance of this practice, known as theMisa de Aguinaldo ("gift Mass"), dates back to 1668, as documented by the JesuitFrancisco Ignacio Alcina in his writings on theVisayas.[56]
The tradition originated in Spain and spread to Latin America before being brought to the Philippines by Mexican missionaries through theManila galleon trade.[57][58] It was initially celebrated before midnight, but by the 18th century it was rescheduled to early dawn so that farmers could attend Mass before beginning work in the fields.[59] This adjustment gave rise to the alternative nameMisa de Gallo ("rooster's Mass"), as the services coincided with the crowing of roosters at daybreak.[60] Prior to this change, worshippers were obliged to fast until midnight and could only break their fast after attending Mass.[61]
Over the centuries,Simbang Gabi has developed into both a religious and cultural practice. Churches are decorated with lights and traditionalparol (star-shaped lanterns), while vendors sell native delicacies such asbibingka andputo bumbong to Mass-goers after the service.[62][63] Completing all nine Masses is popularly believed to bring special blessings or the granting of wishes.[64][65]
After the final Mass on Christmas Eve, families traditionally gather fornochebuena (Spanish for "night of goodness"), a midnight feast that typically includes ham, roasted meats, rice cakes, and desserts.[66][67] Rooted in Spanish colonial custom, thenochebuena meal is both religious and social, serving as both a family gathering and the beginning of the Christmas celebration.[68][69]
After thetransfer of sovereignty from Spain to the United States in 1898, Christmas in the Philippines began to incorporate secular and commercial elements. American influence introduced the widespread use ofChristmas cards,Christmas trees,Santa Claus, and English-language carols.[70] Department stores in Manila later became well known for festive window displays to attract Christmas shoppers,[71][72] while the spread of American-style public education and English-language media introduced Western Christmas symbols such as Santa Claus, Christmas trees, and carols, which blended with traditional observances likeSimbang Gabi andnochebuena.[73][74][75]
DuringWorld War II, particularly underJapanese occupation (1942–1945), Christmas celebrations in the Philippines were severely limited. Blackouts, martial restrictions, and food shortages reduced festivities, although religious services and modest family gatherings continued. At theSanto Tomas Internment Camp in Manila, internees marked Christmas with prayers and shared rations, and occasionally receivedRed Cross parcels that included items such as butter and chocolate, which provided rare holiday relief.[76][77]
A house in Manila with Christmas decorations in December 1982
In the decades following independence in 1946, Christmas celebrations expanded further, with the holiday season lengthening to encompass the entire "ber months" beginning in September.[3] The mass production of parols and the annualLigligan Parul (Giant Lantern Festival) inSan Fernando, Pampanga, popularized in the postwar years, earned the city the title of "Christmas Capital of the Philippines".[78] Television and film further popularized Christmas imagery, while Filipino composers such as José Mari Chan became closely associated with the season in contemporary culture.[79]
The period also saw a diversification of observances beyond Christmas Day itself. The feast of theEpiphany on January 6, commonly called Three Kings' Day, formed part of the extended season,[80] though its liturgical celebration in the Philippines was transferred to the Sunday after January 1 following the 1969 revision of theGeneral Roman Calendar, in line with the practice of many other countries.[81][82] In theVisayas, theSinulog,Ati-Atihan, andDinagyang festivals honor theSanto Niño in January, extending the Christmas season with large religious processions and street celebrations.[83][84]
In the late 20th and early 21st centuries, the Christmas season in the Philippines came to be regarded as the longest in the world, with festive music, decorations, and shopping promotions beginning as early as September (and sometimes August) and continuing until the Feast of the Santo Niño in mid-January.[85][3]
In the Philippines, where the population ispredominantly Catholic,[h] Christmas is celebrated for nearly half the year, from September to January, widely regarded as among the longest in the world.[1][3][87] This prolonged celebration is characterized by both festive and religious elements, as Filipinos combine festive activities with solemn religious practices.[88] Under Philippine law, bothChristmas Eve (December 24) and Christmas Day (December 25) are classified asregular non-working holidays.[3]
Filipino Christmas traditions are a mix of native, Hispanic, and American practices,[89][90] with celebrations emphasizingkinship and thenativity of Jesus.[91] Beyond food and family gatherings, the holiday season features lanterns, decorations, and music, which reflect both religious devotion and communal joy. These elements are often cited in media and cultural commentary as distinct features of a Filipino Christmas.[92] Due to commercialization and secularization, figures such asSanta Claus have also become more mainstream.[93]
While widely embraced as a cultural tradition, the extended season has also drawn criticism for excessive commercialization and holiday fatigue.[94] Commentators have described the phenomenon as "bariotic," a colloquial term for a grassroots, exuberantly festive celebration.[95] TheCatholic Church has stated that the liturgical season of Christmas should only be observed from the first day ofAdvent[10] until the feast of the Epiphany or Three Kings' Day.[11][96] Religious leaders emphasize that the deeper meaning of Christmas in the Philippines is rooted in faith, family, and community solidarity.[97] The early start of Christmas observances has given rise to the popular term "ber months" for September through December.[6][98]
The altar ofManila Cathedral adorned with Christmas trees forSimbang Gabi
Simbang Gabi (literally, "night Mass") is a novena of dawnMasses held from December 16 to 24 (Christmas Eve). It is primarily observed byCatholics andAglipayans, though someEvangelical and independentProtestant churches have adopted pre-Christmas dawn services. Attendance expresses devotion to God and anticipation for thenativity of Jesus, and folk belief holds that completing all nine Masses grants a special wish.[99][100][101]
Masses typically begin around 4:30 am, though some start as early as 3:00 am or as late as 6:00 am. Many parishes also hold anticipated evening Masses around 8:00 pm or 9:00 pm to accommodate modern schedules.[102][103] The novena concludes with theMisa de Gallo, the traditional midnight Mass on Christmas Eve, held just before thenochebuena family feast.[104][97]
The staging ofnativity plays, known locally asPanunulúyan orPanunulúyan sa Pasko, is another traditional element of Filipino Christmas. These dramatizations reenact the story of Mary and Joseph's search for lodging in Bethlehem, culminating in the birth of Jesus. They are commonly held on Christmas Eve before theMisa de Gallo or integrated into community pageants, blending Christian devotion with folk performance traditions.[104][97]
In different provinces and communities, the journey ofJoseph and the pregnantVirgin Mary in search of lodging is re-enacted in a traditional pageant called thePanunulúyan (also variously calledpananawagan,pananapatan, orkagharong in some areas).[105][106] The pageant is related toLas Posadas and is usually performed on Christmas Eve, with actors portraying Joseph and Mary going from house to house and requesting lodging; householders acting as innkeepers then refuse them until the procession reaches the parish church, where a replica stable (belén) is set up and the celebration proceeds into the midnight Mass (Misa de Gallo).[107][108]
For Catholic Filipinos,Christmas Eve (Bisperas ng Pasko) on December 24 is celebrated with Midnight Mass and the traditionalnochebuena feast.[109][110] Family members traditionally gather fornochebuena, a midnight feast featuring dishes such asqueso de bola (red-waxedEdam cheese),tsokolate,pancit or pasta,fruit salad,pandesal,relyeno, andhamon (Christmas ham).[111] Some families also open presents during or after the Noche Buena feast.[112]
New Year's Eve and New Year's Day are major events within the Christmas season in the Philippines. On December 31, families gather for themedianoche (lit.'good night'), a midnight feast traditionally set with twelve round fruits for good fortune and dishes such aspancit for long life; sticky rice treats likebiko are also served, which are associated with family togetherness.[117][118][119] At midnight, people make noise with firecrackers, horns, and kitchenware to drive away evil spirits, with authorities now promoting designated community fireworks displays, the long-running "Iwas Paputok" safety campaigns, and other safer alternatives to reduce injuries and air pollution.[120][121] Many attend a Mass on New Year's Eve or New Year's Day; January 1 is observed in the Catholic Church as theSolemnity of Mary, Mother of God, aholy day of obligation in many dioceses worldwide.[i][122][123][124] Major cities and communities host countdown concerts, fireworks displays, and public festivities that usher in the new year while continuing the extended holiday period.[125]
Christmas in the Philippines officially ends on the feast of theEpiphany, more commonly known as Three Kings' Day and also referred to asPasko ng Matatanda ("Feast of the Elderly") in some areas. It falls on the first Sunday after New Year's Day.[126][127] The Hispanic custom of children leaving their shoes out to receive small gifts from theThree Kings is still observed in some communities, though it has been noted as a declining tradition.[128]
The latest date for the end of popular Christmas celebrations is the feast of theSanto Niño on the third Sunday of January.[129] This day commemorates the first Christian icon brought to the islands and is celebrated with major festivals nationwide, including theSinulog inCebu, theAti-Atihan inAklan, and theDinagyang inIloilo.[129]
In older traditions, the Christmas season lasted until February 2, also known asCandlemas, which marked the Feast of the Purification of Mary and the Presentation of the Baby Jesus at the Temple. This final celebration is marked by the feast ofOur Lady of Candelaria inJaro, Iloilo City, where the image is enshrined inJaro Cathedral.[130]
Typical traditionalnochebuena meal in the Philippines, with a lechon as the centerpiece
Traditional Filipino Christmas cuisine combines Spanish influence with local flavors and regional specialties. Duringnochebuena, families typically serve roasted meats such aslechon andhamon (Christmas ham), alongside other elaborate dishes likeembutido (meatloaf),morcon (stuffed meat roll),hamonado (sweet pork or chicken),Filipino spaghetti,pancit, and festive rice dishes such asbringhe,paelya, orarroz a la valenciana.[131][66][132] Some households also preparechicken relleno,callos (stewed tripe),kare-kare (peanut-basedoxtail stew), and cold cuts or cheese platters withqueso de bola (Edam cheese). Creative modern takes on these classics, such asqueso de bola cheesecake, have become increasingly popular.[133]
Sweet delicacies are commonly associated with the celebration.Bibingka andputo bumbong are well-known foods duringSimbang Gabi, sold outside churches and served with butter, sugar, and grated coconut. Other seasonal favorites includesuman (sticky rice wrapped inbanana leaves),tupig (grilled sticky rice cake),maja blanca (coconut pudding),buko orfruit salad,leche flan,ube halaya (purple yam jam), andpianono (sponge roll cake). These are often paired with hot drinks such astsokolate (thick hot chocolate) orsalabat (ginger tea) served after midnight mass or during family gatherings.[134][135][136][137]
Regional and modern variations add diversity to the holiday table.Lumpiang Shanghai (fried spring rolls) and party-style finger foods are common, as are local specialties like Ilocanotinubong (rice cake cooked in bamboo), Pangasinankakanin, and Kapampanganbringhe. Contemporary households may incorporate international dishes such asroast turkey,baked macaroni, or desserts liketiramisu andcheesecake, reflecting evolving tastes while retaining traditional staples. Grocery stores and markets stock seasonal staples such as prepared hams,queso de bola, wine, and imported sweets to meet demand in the months leading up to Christmas.[138][139]
Gift giving is a central part of the Filipino Christmas season, deeply rooted in family and social traditions. Presents are commonly exchanged duringnochebuena or on Christmas Day, withgodparents (the maleninong and femaleninang) traditionally givinginaanaks (godchildren)pamasko oraguinaldo (cash gifts) during family visits.[140][141] Corporate and community gatherings often feature gift exchanges, raffles, and donation drives for those in need.[88]
Another widespread festive practice isMonito-Monita, the Filipino version ofSecret Santa. The name is widely derived from the Spanish words for "little brother" (monito) and "little sister" (monita), often used affectionately to mean "buddy" or "friend". However, the termsmonito andmonita also literally translate to "little monkey" in Spanish, an interpretation sometimes linked to the tradition's playful and secretive nature.[142][143] Commonly observed in schools, offices, and community groups, this tradition involves participants drawing names and anonymously giving small gifts to their assigned person, with identities revealed only at the end during a holiday gathering.[144] The practice often includes playful themes (for example, "something soft", "something sweet", or "something useful") used to guide gift choices.[142]
Christmas is also a time for family reunions, with extended relatives gathering during the holidays. These reunions often feature games, talent shows, gift exchanges, and large communal meals, reinforcing kinship ties and intergenerational connections.[141][145]
A traditionalparol on a house as Christmas decoration
Theparol, a star-shaped lantern symbolizing theStar of Bethlehem, is one of the most iconic Filipino Christmas decorations. The word derives from Spanishfarol ("lantern" or "lamp").[148][149] Early parols were made with bamboo frames andJapanese paper (papel de Japón), lit by candles orcoconut oil lamps, and often featured a five-pointed star with tails ortassels. Over time, designs became more elaborate and incorporatedcrêpe paper, coloredcellophane, and eventuallycapiz shells, plastic, and electric lighting.[150]
Parol-making remains a major craft industry in Pampanga, especially inSan Fernando, where the annualGiant Lantern Festival (Ligligan Parul) showcases massive, motorized lanterns with synchronized lights and music. These events support local artisans and have turned San Fernando into the "Christmas Capital of the Philippines". Parols are also produced for export and have become symbols of Filipino identity for overseas communities.[151][152]
Another widespread Filipino Christmas symbol is thebelen, anativity scene depicting the birth of Christ. The name derives from the Spanish word forBethlehem,Belén. Abelen typically shows the infant Jesus in the manger with the Virgin Mary, St. Joseph, shepherds, Magi, angels, and stable animals, often illuminated by a parol representing the Star of Bethlehem. Both thebelen andparol predate the introduction of the Christmas tree during the American colonial period.[153][154][155]
Belens were introduced by the Spanish in the 16th century and remain a central feature of Christmas in the Philippines. They are displayed in homes, churches, schools, offices, and public spaces, with many churches transforming their altars into nativity scenes.[156][85] A notable outdoor belen was the mechanized display at the COD Department Store, first inManila (1952) and later in Cubao,Quezon City. It became a popular Christmas attraction before being transferred to theGreenhills Shopping Center in 2003 after COD's closure in 2002, and eventually returned to Cubao in 2018.[157]
InTarlac City, the annual "Belenismo sa Tarlac" promotes belen-making contests among residents and institutions, earning the city recognition as the "Belen Capital of the Philippines".[158]
Jose Mari Chan is widely regarded as the "Father of Philippine Christmas Music" for his contributions to the popular genre.[79][159]
Music is a central part of the Filipino Christmas season, with carols often heard as early as August.[5] Street carolers, typically groups of children, go house to house singing in exchange for coins, a practice rooted inpamamasko.[160][161] This tradition serves not only as a form of merrymaking but also as a way for poorer communities to raise money.[162]
In addition to local compositions, English-language and Western Christmas songs also feature prominently in the season's soundscape, often played in malls and public spaces alongside OPM carols.[180] Some commentators have noted that this blending of imported and local carols has helped shape a distinct Filipino Christmas identity.[181]
Christmas is a recurring theme inPhilippine literature, appearing in children's books, short stories, poems, and essays. Many works highlight themes of faith, family, and community, often set against traditions such asSimbang Gabi,Misa de Gallo, and the use of theparol.[182][183]
While not all films released during the Christmas season are Christmas-themed, theMetro Manila Film Festival (MMFF) is held annually beginning on December 25. Established in 1975, the festival is regarded as one of the most significant events inPhilippine cinema, as it showcases exclusively Filipino films and temporarily bans the screening of foreign films in theaters.[188][189] Because it opens on Christmas Day, the MMFF has become closely tied to the holiday season, with many families watching entries together as part of their celebrations.[190][191]
Television networks also play a prominent role during the season, producing holiday specials, musical programs, and year-end features. Evening newscasts such asTV Patrol and24 Oras regularly mark the start of the "ber months" and count down to Christmas Day.[192][193] Major television networks such asABS-CBN,GMA, andTV5 release annual Christmas station IDs featuring original songs and performances from their artists, which have become widely anticipated and repeated throughout the season.[194][195] Television programming during December also includes reruns of popular foreign Christmas films such asHome Alone andThe Polar Express, as well as Filipino classics and variety specials, further cementing the medium's central role in the country's holiday celebrations.[196]
While Christmas is primarily a Christian holiday in the Philippines, non-Christian communities also engage with the season in different ways. Many participate in its secular aspects, such as parties, decorations, and gift-giving, without observing it as a religious occasion.[197][198]
Among Muslims, Christmas is not a religious holiday but participation in social gatherings is not uncommon, provided that practices do not contradict Islamic teachings. Some Islamic leaders have emphasized that Muslims may join Christmas parties to show goodwill but should refrain from rituals tied to Christian worship.[199]
TheIglesia ni Cristo (INC) rejects Christmas as a non-biblical and pagan-rooted practice, along with other holidays such as Easter and Halloween.[200] Instead, it holds a Year-end Thanksgiving worship service every December, which functions as a communal and festive event.[201][202] The INC's stance can extend to public settings; for example, a 2016Philippine Basketball Association (PBA) game at thePhilippine Arena excluded Christmas greetings and music in respect of church beliefs.[203]
The long Philippine Christmas season produces a recurring, nationwide economic cycle. It concentrates cash inflows such asremittances andyear-end bonuses, stimulates retail and service activity, increases temporary employment, and creates critical income opportunities for both formal and informal workers. At the same time, it can stress logistics and public services and contribute to household indebtedness.[85][204]
The Christmas season is regarded as the single biggest driver of household spending. Surveys show that Filipino families spend more than triple their monthly income on gifts, food, and celebrations during the holidays,[205] with a 2021 estimate placing expected outlays at ₱37,000 per household.[206]
Remittances fromOverseas Filipino Workers (OFWs) and other personal transfers rise sharply in the months leading to December, regularly hitting record highs and providing a crucial cash boost for household consumption.[207][208][209] The distribution of year-end incentives, particularly mandatory13th month pay and company-specific Christmas bonuses, further amplifies consumption. TheDepartment of Labor and Employment (DOLE) requires that 13th month pay be released on or before December 24.[210][211]
Malls, department stores, and online platforms report sustained sales growth starting as early as September, with themed promotions running throughout the "ber months".[212][213]E-commerce growth drives record parcel volumes, requiring courier firms to expand hiring, while electricity use and transportation demand rise due to mall operations, lighting displays, and year-end travel.[213][1] Holiday demand generates temporary jobs in retail, logistics, food service, crafts, and tourism, leading to a seasonal dip in unemployment rates.[214] Small-scale producers such as parol makers in Pampanga also benefit from seasonal orders.[215][216][217]
Christmas celebrations also stimulatedomestic tourism, as local government units host light displays, festivals, and themed attractions that generate seasonal employment and revenue. This period marks a peak in domestic travel, with Filipinos returning home or vacationing for leisure, driving up hotel, restaurant, and transportation earnings.[218][219] Demand for traditionalnochebuena staples such as lechon, ham, andkakanin also rises sharply.[220]Paskuhan Village, located inSan Fernando, Pampanga, was inaugurated in December 1990 as a Christmas-themed park showcasing local lantern-making and promoting regional tourism.[221][222] Although its operations have declined, local and national agencies have proposed redeveloping the site to revive its cultural and economic role.[223]
Inflation, infrastructure, and post-holiday effects
ThePhilippine Statistics Authority (PSA) regularly reports seasonal peaks in food inflation during December, particularly for meat, rice, and other staples.[224][225] The Christmas rush also worsens urban traffic congestion inMetro Manila, prompting theMetropolitan Manila Development Authority (MMDA) to implement traffic management schemes and coordinate mall hour adjustments.[226] Public transportation agencies extend service hours to meet passenger demand.[227]
Economists note a "January hangover" in which households cut back on spending or face debt repayments after December consumption, prompting banks and government agencies to issue budgeting reminders.[228][229]
^The months ending with the-ber suffix: September, October, November, and December.
^In other words, the holiday season ends in the first week of January.
^Also known asEpiphany, generally observed on January 6 in theGeneral Roman Calendar. However, some countries, including the Philippines, observe it between January 2 and 8.[11]
^Ancient Greekπάσχα (páskha) was itself borrowed from Aramaicפסחא (paskha), which in turn came from Hebrewפסח (pésakh).
^For example, in the aforementioned Hiligaynon and Ilocano languages, it is spelledPaskwa[22] andPaskua,[23] respectively.
^As of the2015 census, Roman Catholics made up79.53% of the population; other Christian denominations accounted for9.13%.[86]
^The Solemnity of Mary, Mother of God, is celebrated on the eighth day of theOctave of Christmas, which connects it liturgically to the Christmas season.
^"Paskong Pinoy at Kultura" [Filipino Christmas and Culture].The Manila Times. December 2, 2021. RetrievedMarch 20, 2022.In the Philippines, the parol has become an iconic symbol of the Filipino Christmas and is as important to Filipinos as the Christmas tree is to Western cultures.
^de Noceda, Juan José; de Sanlucar, Pedro (1860).Vocabulario de la lengua tagala [Vocabulary of the Tagalog Language] (in Spanish). Ramirez y Giraudier. p. 404.
^Rodriguez 1965, pp. 296–297: "[T]hat the name of Luzon [Dondiin], which Mr. Romanet in his workLes voyages en Asie au XIV siecle, took for original in the work of Bl. Odoric de Pordenone is due to the natives and not to the foreigners; secondly, that for Odoric the so-called islands of Dondiin, comprise Ceylon, a part of Sonda, probably Berneo [sic] and the Island Hainan, but by no means the Philippine Islands."
^Scott 1984, pp. 81–82: "But if there is a possibility that Friar Odoric actually set foot on Philippine soil, there is no reason to think that he baptized anybody or celebrated mass two centuries before Magellan's arrival—there is no reason even to think that he was a priest."
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