| Religion in Egypt |
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| Religions in Egypt |
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Christianity is the second largest religion inEgypt.[note 1][1] The vast majority of Egyptian Christians areCopts. As of 2019,Copts in Egypt make up approximately 10 percent of the nation's population, with an estimated population of 9.5 million or 10 million. In 2018, approximately 90% of Egyptian Christians were Coptic Orthodox.
The history of EgyptianChristianity dates to theRoman era asAlexandria was anearly center of Christianity.[2]
The vast majority of Egyptian Christians areCopts who belong to theCoptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria, anOriental Orthodox Church.[3][4] As of 2019,Copts in Egypt make up approximately 10 percent of the nation's population,[5] with an estimated population of 9.5 million (figure cited in theWall Street Journal, 2017)[6] or 10 million (figure cited in theAssociated Press, 2019).[7] Smaller or larger figures have also been cited, in the range of somewhere between 6% and 18% of the population,[8] with the Egyptian government estimating lower numbers and the Coptic Orthodox Church claiming 15 million Christians living in Egypt.[9][5] A lack of definite, reliable demographic data renders all estimates uncertain.[8][5] Outside of Egypt, there are roughly 1 million members of theCoptic Orthodox abroad.[10] In 2018, approximately 90% of Egyptian Christians were Coptic Orthodox.[4]
Other than the Coptic Orthodox Church, two otherOriental Orthodox churches have members in Egypt: theArmenian Apostolic andSyriac Orthodox churches.[3]
A minority — approximately 2.5% — of Egyptian Christians belong to theCoptic Catholic Church.[11][3] In 2007, theAnnuario Pontificio estimated the total membership of the Coptic Catholic Church to be 161,327, divided into nineeparchies, with nine bishops and 164 parishes.[12][13] Otherparticular churches of the worldwideCatholic Church with members in Egypt include theMelkites,Maronites,Syriac Catholics,Armenian Catholics, andChaldean Catholics.[3] MostLatin Church Catholics in Egypt are expatriates.[3]
TheGreek Orthodox Patriarchate of Alexandria and all Africa is the presence ofEastern Orthodoxy in Egypt.[3] Its membership has steadily declined, and was approximately 110,000 in 1980.[14]
There are a small number ofProtestants among Egypt's Christian populations.[11][3] This includes theEvangelical Church of Egypt (Synod of the Nile),Pentecostals,Anglicans (about half expatriates), and theArmenian Evangelical Church.[3] There are smaller numbers of adherents of theChristian Brethren,Free Methodist,Seventh-Day Adventist, andChurches of Christ, among others.[3] Between 1,000 and 1,500Jehovah's Witnesses live in Egypt.[15] TheAdventist Atlas estimated 852 members of theSeventh-day Adventist Church in Egypt as of 2008.[16]
Scattered among the various churches are a number ofconverts from Islam to Christianity. A 2015 study estimated that there were 14,000 such believers in Egypt.[17]
Coptic Christians in Egypt are generally characterized by relatively high levels of educational attainment, income, and representation in professional and white-collar occupations, though their participation in security-related institutions remains limited.[18] A 2013 demographic study found that most socioeconomic and health indicators among Copts were broadly comparable to those of Egyptian Muslims.[18] Historical data also suggest that Egyptian Christians have been overrepresented in the country’s middle and upper-middle classes.[19]
Throughout the 19th and early 20th centuries, Copts held significant roles in Egypt’s financial and administrative sectors. They were widely employed as accountants in government offices, and by the 1960s reportedly owned a substantial portion of the country’s banking institutions.[20][21] In the mid-20th century, Christians were estimated to represent 45% of Egypt’s medical doctors and 60% of its pharmacists.[22]
A 2016 study by the Pew Research Center found that 36% of Egyptian Christians had completed university education, among the highest rates in the Middle East and North Africa.[23]
Several Coptic families have attained significant economic influence, particularly in the private sector. The Sawiris family, through its Orascom conglomerate, became one of Egypt’s most prominent business dynasties in the early 2000s, with interests spanning telecommunications, construction, tourism, and technology.[24][25][26] In 2008, Forbes estimated their combined wealth at $36 billion.[27][28][29][30]
Some scholars attribute the high educational and economic profile of the Coptic community to a historical emphasis within the tradition on literacy and the development of human capital.[20]
According to tradition, the Coptic Church was founded byMark the Evangelist,[note 2] who was one of theseventy apostles chosen byJesus and sent out to preach the gospel. He is mentioned in theBook of Acts as a companion ofSaint Paul inAntioch andCyprus,[33] and is ascribed to be the author of theGospel of Mark. According to the Coptic tradition, Mark was born inCyrene, a city in thePentapolis of North Africa (nowLibya). This tradition adds that Mark returned to Pentapolis later in life, after being sent byPaul toColossae (Colossians 4:10;[34]Philemon 24)[35] and serving with him in Rome (2 Timothy 4:11);[36] from Pentapolis he made his way toAlexandria.[37][38]
According to tradition, in AD 49, about 16 years after theAscension of Jesus, Mark travelled toAlexandria and founded theChurch of Alexandria, having already been in Egypt for 4-5 years. TheCoptic Orthodox Church, theGreek Orthodox Church of Alexandria, and theCoptic Catholic Church all trace their origins to this original community.[39] Aspects of the Coptic liturgy (specifically theLiturgy of Saint Cyril) can be traced back to Mark himself.[40] He became the firstbishop of Alexandria and he is honoured as the founder ofChristianity in Africa.[41] When Mark returned to Alexandria, the pagans of the city resented his efforts to turn the Alexandrians away from the worship of theirtraditional gods.[32] In AD 68, they placed a rope around his neck and dragged him through the streets until he was dead.[32]
According to Eusebius,[42] Mark was succeeded byAnianus as the bishop of Alexandria in the eighth year ofNero (62/63), probably, but not definitely, due to his coming death. Later Coptic tradition says that he was martyred in 68.[43][44][45][35]
According toSeverus ibn al-Muqaffa, the rise of Christianity in Alexandria in the second half of thefirst century was accompanied bypersecution by the Romans, so much so that after the departure of the third Pope of AlexandriaAvilius in 93 AD, a new pope could not be chosen until 95 AD. This pope,Kedron, was himself martyred under the emperorTrajan. Despite this, the bishops elected a new pope, indicating that the church had such a powerful base that no amount of persecution, not even the murder of the pope himself, could overcome it.
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Pope Primus was elected as the 5th Pope of Alexandria in 106 AD, and theCatechetical School of Alexandria arose in his days, as did the number of churches in Egypt and beyond, despite the emperorHadrian continuing the persecution of Christians. The next two popes,Justus andEumenes, were also Deans of the Catechetical School of Alexandria.[46][47][48] The persecutions by Hadrian intensified during their pontificates, but subsided during that of the next two popes,Markianos andCeladion, due to the ascension of the relatively tolerant emperorMarcus Aurelius. Since the middle of thesecond century, the Catechetical School has produced manyChurch Fathers whose writings are still read and studied today, includingOrigen andClement of Alexandria, as well as SaintsPantaenus andAthenagoras. Some of the most important Church Fathers in the West, such as SaintsAugustine andJerome, were influenced by the School of Alexandria too. Another milestone of the second century was the firstBible translations into Coptic from its originalKoine Greek. Coptic was, along withSyriac andLatin, one of the earliest languages the New Testament was translated into.
Pope Demetrius (188-230) established aliturgical calendar by which fasts and feast days were determined. He was engaged inthe controversy over the canonical calculation of Easter, and was the first to applythe calculation method for determining the date of Easter. His method was later approved by theCouncil of Nicea,[49] which made one of the duties of thepatriarch of Alexandria to determine the dates of the Easter and to announce it to the other Christian churches.[50] This duty fell on this officiate because of the erudition at Alexandria he could draw on.
Pope Demetrius died in 230 after a long pontificate, and neither his pontificate nor that of his predecessorJulian (178-188) saw any violent persecution of Christians, except that the restrictions against them were not lifted, and he had warned the bishops against leaving Alexandria. Despite this, the Pope would secretly leave toordain new priests in other cities and villages. By 300, about a quarter of the population in the eastern half of the Roman Empire was Christian.[51]
During the second century, the Church also fought againstGnosticism, which syncretized Christianity with the beliefs that had prevailed before it. Its monks engaged in meditation and philosophy in pursuit of spiritual knowledge (gnosis), which they believed could be attained solely by human effort without God's help. Gnostic beliefs were not well understood to historians until the discovery of their writings, such as theNag Hammadi library, in the 20th century. The gnostics wrotefalse gospels and ascribed them to Biblical figures. For example, theGospel of Judas portrays Jesus' betrayerJudas Iscariot as a partner in salvation and redemption. TheChurch Fathers, such asOrigen andClement of Alexandria, produced anti-Gnostic writings which contributed to the fall of the movement, although it would take several centuries to completely disappear.
The main problem suffered by the church in the second and third centuries was theirpersecution by the Roman Empire. Fromthe expulsion of Jews and Christians from Rome around 50 AD to theEdict of Milan in 313 AD, the Christians suffered various persecutions, the harshest of which were theNeronian persecution and theDiocletianic Persecution. Christian history refers to the persecutions ofNero,Domitian,Trajan,Marcus Aurelius,Septimius Severus,Maximinus,Decius,Valerian,Aurelian andDiocletian as the "Ten Great Persecutions".[52]
Christian teachings conflicted with Roman beliefs regarding thedeification andworship of Roman emperors, and Christians refused toserve in the Roman army andtook Sabbath days off to perform religious rites. Roman authorities thus saw Christians as anti-state criminals, and Christianity as a subversive religion that threatened the safety and security of the empire. Therefore, they banned Christian gatherings and organised persecutions against Christians, which reached their height under Diocletian (r. 284–305). The Christians faced this persecution with strength and endurance, with thousands choosing to suffer torture and death over denying their faith in Christ. The Coptic Church began counting the years, theEra of the Martyrs, from the beginning of Diocletian's reign, and commemorates themartyrs onNayrouz, which is the beginning of the year in theCoptic calendar.
The situation for Christians greatly improved after EmperorConstantine'sEdict of Milan legalised Christianity in 313 AD, and EmperorTheodosius'sEdict of Thessalonica made it thestate church of the Empire in 380 AD.
From the 3rd century onwards, Egyptian Christianity fostered theDesert Fathers and thus originated a major and influential tradition of ascetic monasticism in the Christian Church overall.[53]
In 318, only 5 years after the end of theDiocletianic Persecution, an Alexandrian priest namedArius claimed thatJesus Christ was notcoeternal withGod the Father, but was rather created before time.[54] This view, calledArianism, was opposed byPope Alexander and his then-deaconAthanasius, who would later succeed him as Pope. Theresulting controversy led the EmperorConstantine to convene anecumenical council, theFirst Council of Nicaea, which 318 bishops attended according to tradition. After two months of debating and searching the Bible, all but two of them agreed that Arius' view was heretical, and they had Ariusexcommunicated. To outline the correct Orthodox belief, they wrote theNicene Creed, which affirms that Jesus is "true God", that he is "begotten, not made", and that he is "of one essence with the Father".[55][56][57]
The conflict between Arians and the Orthodox Church continued after the Council of Nicea, and was so intense that Athanasius was exiled five times by four different Roman emperors during his 45-year-long pontificate (328-373), spending 17 of those years in exile. InCoptic literature, Athanasius is the first patriarch of Alexandria to useCoptic as well as Greek in his writings.[58] Other heresies which arose later were addressed at theCouncil of Constantinople in 381 AD, which made additions to the Nicene Creed, including the section about theHoly Spirit.
In the early 5th century, theArchbishop of ConstantinopleNestorius rejected the concept of theHypostatic union, instead claiming that there are two distincthypostases in the Incarnate Christ, the one Divine and the other human. As such, he refused the titleTheotokos (God – Bearer), used forSaint Mary, instead using "Christotokos". PopeCyril of Alexandria strongly opposed him and defended the use of the titleTheotokos. Nestorius was deposed at theCouncil of Ephesus in 431 AD.
In 446, an aged monk fromConstantinople calledEutyches began teaching thatChrist only has one nature. In reaction to Nestorianism, he had adopted an extreme view in the opposite direction. Eutyches was condemned and exiled by a synod presided over byFlavian, Bishop of Constantinople, who also sent a full account toLeo, Pope of Rome. Eutyches appealed toDioscorus, Pope of Alexandria, who, under the impression that Eutyches had repented, held his own synod annulling Flavian's ruling and absolving Eutyches. The EmperorTheodosius II convened a council, theSecond Council of Ephesus, in which Dioscorus reinstated Eutyches and deposed Flavian, as well asEusebius of Dorylaeum,Theoderet of Cyrrus,Ibas of Edessa, andDomnus II of Antioch. Flavian died shortly afterward, and Dioscorus was accused of killing him. Leo, who could not attend the council himself, wrote a letter calledLeo's Tome explaining his views on the doctrinal issues involved, which Dioscorus considered Nestorian. After Emperor Theodosius died, the new emperor and empressMarcian andPulcheria convened another council, theCouncil of Chalcedon, in 451.[59] This council deposed Pope Dioscorus and had him exiled toGangra. It also read Leo's Tome and declared it orthodox, despite its contradictions withPope Cyril's teachings, specifically the third of his Twelve Anathemas.[60]
The near-immediate result of the council was a major schism.[clarification needed] The bishops who were uneasy with the language of Pope Leo's Tome repudiated the council, saying that the acceptance of twophyses was tantamount to Nestorianism. Dioscorus of Alexandria advocatedmiaphysitism and had dominated the Council of Ephesus.[61]Churches that rejected Chalcedon in favor of Ephesus broke off fromthe rest of the Eastern Church in a schism, the most significant among these being the Church ofAlexandria, today known as theCoptic Orthodox Church.[39] The rise of the "so-called" monophysitism in the East (as branded by the West) was led by the Copts of Egypt.
Most (butnot all) of the emperors in this period were Chalcedonians. Some of them persecuted the non-Chalcedonian Church, while others attempted to resolve the schism. In 482, EmperorZeno made an attempt to reconcilechristological differences between the supporters and opponents of theChalcedonian Definition by issuing an imperial decree known as theHenotikon, but those efforts were mainly politically motivated and ultimately proved to be unsuccessful in reaching a true and substantial reconciliation.[62] In 518, the new Byzantine EmperorJustin I (who accepted Chalcedon), demanded that the entire Church in the Roman Empire accept the Council's decisions. Justin ordered the replacement of all non-Chalcedonian bishops, including the patriarchs of Antioch and Alexandria.
During the reign of emperorJustinian I (527–565), whose wifeTheodora was non-Chalcedonian, new attempts were made towards reconciliation. One of the most prominent Oriental Orthodox theologians of that era wasSeverus of Antioch. In spite of several, imperially sponsored meetings between heads of Oriental Orthodox and Eastern Orthodox communities, no final agreement was reached. The most notable persecution of Copts during this period was by the staunchmonothelitistCyrus of Alexandria.
Egypt as well as some other Asian and African Byzantine territories were conquered by Muslims in the 7th century. Under Muslim rule, the Copts were cut off from the mainstream of Christianity and were compelled to adhere to thePact of Umar covenant. They were assigned toDhimmi status. Under the rule of theBahri Mamluks, many Christians were forcefully converted and persecuted across Egypt.[63] Their position improved dramatically in the early 19th century under the rule ofMuhammad Ali. He abolished theJizya (a tax on non-Muslims) and allowed Copts to enroll in the army.Pope Cyril IV, 1854–61, reformed the church and encouraged broader Coptic participation in Egyptian affairs. KhediveIsma'il Pasha, in power 1863–79, further promoted the Copts. He appointed them judges to Egyptian courts and awarded them political rights and representation in government. They flourished in business affairs.[64][full citation needed]
The firstAnglican presence in Egypt was established in 1819 by missionaries from theChurch Mission Society, who endeavored to distribute copies of theGospels inArabic.[65] The first Anglican church in Egypt, calledSt. Mark's was consecrated on December 17, 1839, in Alexandria, followed byAll Saint's Church, in Cairo, consecrated on January 23, 1876.
TheEvangelical Presbyterian Church of Egypt, Synod of the Nile was founded by American missionaries from theUnited Presbyterian Church of North America, ministering among members of theCoptic Orthodox Church in 1854, the church would later become autonomous in 1926.[66][67] By 1998, the Synod had more than 300 churches, a seminary and a "large system of church related secondary schools."[67]
Some Copts participated in the Egyptian national movement for independence and occupied many influential positions. Two significant cultural achievements include the founding of theCoptic Museum in 1910 and the Higher Institute of Coptic Studies in 1954. Some prominent Coptic thinkers from this period areSalama Moussa,Louis Awad and Secretary-General of theWafd PartyMakram Ebeid.
In 1952,Gamal Abdel Nasser led some army officers in a coup d'état againstKing Farouk, which overthrew the Kingdom of Egypt and established a republic.Nasser's mainstream policy waspan-Arab nationalism and socialism. The Copts were severely affected by Nasser's nationalization policies, though they represented about 10–20% of the population.[68] In addition, Nasser's pan-Arab policies undermined the Copts' strong attachment to and sense of identity about their Egyptian pre-Arab, and certainly non-Arab identity which resulted in permits to construct churches to be delayed along with Christian religious courts to be closed.[68]
By January 1976, the Diocese of Egypt had become part of the Episcopal / Anglican Province of Jerusalem and the Middle East, and in May 2020, theEpiscopal / Anglican Province of Alexandria became the 41st Province of theAnglican Communion.[65]
On February 18, 2013, the leaders of the five largest denominations in Egypt — theCoptic Orthodox Church, theGreek Orthodox Church, theRoman Catholic Church, theProtestant Church and theAnglican Church — formed the first Council of Churches in Egypt. In attendance were the patriarchs of the Coptic Orthodox Church,Tawadros II, the Greek Orthodox Church,Theodore II of Alexandria, and the Coptic Catholic Church,Ibrahim Isaac Sidrak.[citation needed]
Egyptian Christians, particularly those who adhered to the Miaphysite doctrine that would come to define Coptic Orthodoxy, experienced prolonged periods of persecution from the third century onward. Under Roman rule, systematic repression began with the Edict of Decius and reached its height during the reign of Emperor Diocletian (r. 284–305), whose brutal campaigns against Christians resulted in mass executions. This era, memorialized in the Coptic calendar as the "Era of the Martyrs," became foundational to Coptic identity.[69] Further hardship followed the Council of Chalcedon in 451 CE, whose Christological definition was rejected by the majority of Egyptian Christians. Their resistance to Chalcedonian doctrine prompted persecution by the Byzantine Empire, particularly under emperors Marcian and Leo I the Thracian.[70] This culminated in intensified repression during the patriarchate of Cyrus of Alexandria, especially amid the Monothelite controversy, and continued until the Muslim conquest of Egypt.[71]
Following the Muslim conquest of Egypt (639–641 CE), Christians were designated as dhimmi, a protected class under Islamic law permitted to practice their religion in exchange for paying the jizya tax and refraining from military service.[72][73][74][75][76] While this arrangement initially afforded a degree of religious autonomy, over time discriminatory practices intensified, and social and economic pressures contributed to the gradual Islamization of Egypt’s population.[77]
In the early 11th century, theCoptic Orthodox Church faced significant persecution under the sixthFatimid Caliph,Al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah. During his reign, Al-Hakim is reported to have ordered the destruction of as many as 3,000 churches, and implemented measures that adversely affected religious minorities, including the prohibition of wine, which was essential to both Christian and Jewish religious rituals.[78] In 1005, he imposed theghiyār ("law of differentiation"), mandating that Christians and Jews wear distinctive clothing, including a black belt (zunnār ormintaq) and a black turban (ʿimāmah).[79] In 1009, Al-Hakim ordered the destruction of theChurch of the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem, one of the most sacred sites in Christianity.
Christians in Egypt, primarily members of the Coptic Orthodox Church, constitute the country’s largest religious minority and have long faced legal, social, and institutional discrimination. Although the Egyptian constitution guarantees freedom of religion, in practice, Christians encounter unequal treatment. Converts to Islam face no legal obstacles, while Muslims seeking to convert to Christianity often face bureaucratic delays, denial of identity documents, or detention.[80][81] A 2008 court ruling allowed some converts to revert to Christianity, but their official records still note prior conversions.[82]
Church construction was historically restricted, requiring presidential approval even for minor repairs. While a 2005 reform devolved some authority to governors, major change came with the 2016 Church Construction Law, which has since led to the legalization of thousands of churches.[83][84]
Copts have been the target of sectarian violence, most notably after the 2013 coup, when numerous churches and Christian institutions were attacked.[85] Rights groups documented waves of incitement, arson, and mob violence, often met with inadequate state protection or legal recourse.[86] Concerns also remain about the abduction and forced conversion of Coptic women and girls.[87]
Nonetheless, recent years have shown signs of progress. Christians have reported greater freedom to construct and renovate churches, and new initiatives, such as interreligious reconciliation efforts and protective fatwas, have emerged.[84][88] Egypt’s position on Open Doors’ World Watch List, which ranks the 50 countries where Christians face the most persecution, fell from 25th in 2013 to 40th by 2025, indicating a measurable decline in reported persecution.[89] However, social discrimination and underrepresentation in public institutions continue to affect the community.
Further notable Egyptian Christian people can be found under specific lists:
The U.S. government estimates the population at 99.4 million (July 2018 estimate). Most experts and media sources state that approximately 90 percent of the population is officially designated as Sunni Muslims and approximately 10 percent is recognized as Christian (estimates range from 5 to 15 percent). Approximately 90 percent of Christians belong to the Coptic Orthodox Church, according to Christian leaders.
The largest Christian community in the Middle East, Coptic Christians make up the majority of Egypt's roughly 9 million Christians. About 1 million more Coptic Christians are spread across Africa, Europe, the United Kingdom and the United States, according to the World Council of Churches.
{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link){{cite book}}:ISBN / Date incompatibility (help)Copts constitute up to 10 percent of the population of Egypt.
Copts are generally understood to make up approximately 10 percent of Egypt's population.
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