 | This article has multiple issues. Please helpimprove it or discuss these issues on thetalk page.(Learn how and when to remove these messages) (Learn how and when to remove this message)
|
| Part ofa series on |
| Christianity |
|---|
 |
Christianity and other religions documentsChristianity's relationship with other world religions, and the differences and similarities.
Some Christians have argued thatreligious pluralism is an invalid or a self-contradictory concept. Maximal forms of religious pluralism claim that all religions are equally true, or they claim that one religion can be true for some people and another religion can be true for others. Some Christians hold the view that such pluralism is logically impossible.[1]Catholicism believes that while it is the fullest and most complete revelation of God to man, other Christian denominations have also received genuinerevelation from God.
AlthoughCalvinists believe that God and the truth of God cannot be plural, they also believe that those civil ordinances of man which restrain man from doing evil and encourage man to do good, are ordinances of God (regardless of the religion, or the lack of it, of those who wield that power). Christians are obligated to be at peace with all men, as far as it is up to them, and they are also obligated to submit to governments for the Lord's sake, and pray for their enemies. Calvinism is not pacifistic, and as a result, Calvinists have been involved in religious wars, most notably, they were involved in theFrench Wars of Religion and theEnglish Civil War. Some of the first parts of modern Europe where religious tolerance was practiced had Calvinistic populations, most notably theNetherlands.[citation needed]
Evangelical Christians believe that religious pluralism isheresy and contradicts theBible.[2]
 | This sectiondoes notcite anysources. Please helpimprove this section byadding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged andremoved.(April 2021) (Learn how and when to remove this message) |
In recent years, some Christian groups have become more open to religious pluralism; this has led to many cases of reconciliation between Christians and people of other faiths. The liberalization of many seminaries and theological institutions, particularly in regards to the rejection of the notion that the Bible is an infallible document, has led to a much more human-centered and secular movement within Mainline Christian denominations, particularly in the United States. Some Mainline churches no longer hold toexclusivist views on salvation.
In recent years there has been much to note in the way of reconciliation between some Christian groups and the Jewish people. Many modern day Christians, including many Catholics and some liberal Protestants, have developed a view of the New Testament as an extended covenant; they believe thatJews are still in a valid relationship with God, and that Jews - qua Jews - can avoid damnation and earn a heavenly reward. For these Christians, the New Testament extended God's original covenant to cover non-Jews. The articleChristian–Jewish reconciliation deals with this issue in detail.
Multiple smaller Christian groups in the US and Canada have come into being over the last 40 years, such as "Christians for Israel". Their website says that they exist in order to "expand Christian-Jewish dialogue in the broadest sense in order to improve the relationship between Christians and Jews, but also between Church and Synagogue, emphasizing Christian repentance, the purging of anti-Jewish preliminary attitudes and the false 'Replacement' theology rampant throughout Christian teachings."
A number of large Christian groups, including the Catholic Church and several large Protestant churches, have publicly declared that they will no longerproselytize Jews.
Other Modern Christian views, including some conservativeProtestants, reject the idea of the New Testament as an extended covenant, and retain the classical Christian view as described earlier.
For the Catholic Church, there has been a move at reconciliation not only with Judaism, but alsoIslam. TheSecond Vatican Council states that salvation includes others who acknowledge the same creator, and explicitly lists Muslims among those (using the termMohammedans, which was the word commonly used among non-Muslims at the time). The official Catholic position is therefore that Jews, Muslims and Christians (including churches outside of Rome's authority) all acknowledge the same God, though Jews and Muslims have not yet received the gospel while other churches are generally considered deviant to a greater or lesser degree.
The most prominent event in the way of dialogue between religions has arguably been the 1986 Peace Prayer inAssisi, to which PopeJohn Paul II, against considerable resistance also from within theRoman Catholic church, invited representatives of all world religions. John Paul II’s remarks regarding Christian denominations were found in hisUt unum sint address. This initiative was taken up by theCommunity of Sant'Egidio, who, with the support of John Paul II, organized yearly peace meetings of religious representatives. These meetings, consisting of round tables on different issues and of a common time of prayer, have done much to further understanding and friendship between religious leaders and to further concrete peace initiatives. In order to avoid the reproaches ofsyncretism that were leveled at the 1986 Assisi meeting where the representatives of all religions held one common prayer, the follow-up meetings saw the representatives of the different religions pray in different places according to their respective traditions.
The question of whether traditional Chinese ancestor veneration, consists of worshipping a God or veneration of a saint was important to the Roman Catholic church during theChinese Rites controversy of the early 18th century. This dispute was between theDominicans who argued that Confucianism and Chinese folk religion was worship, and therefore incompatible with Catholicism, and theJesuit who argued the reverse. Thepope ultimately ruled in favor of the Dominicans, a decision which greatly reduced the role of Catholic missionaries in China. However, this decision was partially reversed by PopePius XII in 1939; after this, Chinese customs were no longer considered superstition or idolatry, but a way of honoring esteemed relatives (not entirely dissimilar to the Catholic practice of praying for the dead).
TheBaháʼí Faith believes that there is one God who sendsdivine messengers to guide humanity throughout time, which is calledprogressive revelation (Baháʼí)—and is different from the Christian belief ofprogressive revelation (Christian). They believe in the divine knowledge and essence ofJesus, among other messengers such asMuhammad,Zoroaster,Moses,Buddha,Krishna, and others. Interpretations vary, but the Baháʼí Faith is sometimes considered anAbrahamic faith. The followers of the Baháʼí Faith believe in God, as do Christians, and recognize Jesus' teachings, but they have different views of theTrinity and divinity of Jesus. The Baháʼí view of prophets is that although they have both human and divine characteristics, they are not themselves God, but rather "divine manifestations". They also see the Trinity as symbolic where Jesus and the Holy Spirit are polished mirrors that reflect the pure light from God. Although Baháʼís affirm the Bible as sacred scripture, they do not consider the Bible to be wholly authentic asShoghi Effendi, theGuardian of the Baháʼí Faith, affirmed that "The Bible is not wholly authentic, and in this respect not to be compared with the Qur’án, and should be wholly subordinated to the authentic Sayings of Bahá’u’lláh."[3][4]
Baháʼís share some views with Christianity regarding moral and immoral behavior. Baháʼís condemnpolygamy,premarital sex, andhomosexual acts while treating everyone, including homosexuals, with love, respect, and dignity.
In the 19th century, some scholars began to perceive similarities between Buddhist and Christian practices. For example, in 1878,T.W. Rhys Davids wrote that the earliest missionaries toTibet observed that similarities have been seen in Christianity and Buddhism since the first known contact was made between adherents of the two religions.[5] In 1880 Ernest De Bunsen made similar observations and noted that except for the death of Jesus on the cross, and the Christian doctrine of atonement, the most ancient Buddhist records noted that similarities existed between Buddhist and Christian traditions.[6]
Buddhism andProtestantism came into political conflict in 19th centurySri Lanka and Tibetc. 1904 (the Francis Younghusband Expedition). Various individuals and organizations have helped introduce various strains of Buddhist theology and meditation to several generations of Western spiritual seekers (including some Catholic religious). Relations between both religions are generally good, except inSouth Korea where Christians have damagedBuddhist temples and engaged in other forms ofChristian extremism.[7] The Russian republic ofKalmykia recognizesTibetan/Lamaist Buddhism andRussian Orthodoxy as its official religions.
Christianity andDruze areAbrahamic religions that share a historical traditional connection with some major theological differences. The two faiths share a common place of origin in theMiddle East, and consider themselves to bemonotheistic.The relationship between the Druze and Christians has been characterized byharmony and peacefulcoexistence,[10][11][12][13] with amicable relations between the two groups prevailing throughout history, with the exception of some periods, including1860 Mount Lebanon civil war.[14][15]Conversion of Druze to Christianity used to be common practice in theLevant region.[16][17] Over the centuries, several prominent members of the Druze community have embraced Christianity,[18][19][20][21] including some ofShihab dynasty members,[22] as well as the Abi-Lamma clan.[23][24]
Christian and Druze communities share a long history of interaction dating back roughly a millennium, particularly inMount Lebanon.[25] Interaction between Christian communities (Maronites,Eastern Orthodox,Melkite Catholic, and others) and the Unitarian Druze, led to the presence of mixed villages and towns inMount Lebanon,Chouf,[13]Wadi al-Taym,[26]Jabal al-Druze,[27] theGalilee region,Mount Carmel, andGolan Heights.[28] TheMaroniteCatholics and the Druze founded modernLebanon in the early eighteenth century, through a governing and social system known as the "Maronite-Druze dualism" in theMount Lebanon Mutasarrifate.[29]
Druze doctrine teaches that Christianity is to be "esteemed and praised" as theGospel writers are regarded as "carriers of wisdom".[30] The Druze faith incorporates some elements of Christianity,[31][32][33] and other religious beliefs. The full Druze canon or Druze scripture (Epistles of Wisdom) includes theOld Testament,[34] theNew Testament,[34] theQuran andphilosophical works byPlato and those influenced bySocrates among works from otherreligions andphilosophers,[34] and adopted some Christian elements.[35] The Druze faith shows influence ofChristian monasticism, among other religious practices.[36][33] Some scholars suggest thatearly ChristianGnostic beliefs might have influenced Druze theology, particularly in concepts ofdivine knowledge andreincarnation.[33] These influences and incorporations of Christian elements encompass the adoption of the concept ofChristianizing al-Mahdi's persona among the Druze, as well as the integration of verses from theBible concerning the Messiah by certain Druze founders.[33]
In terms of religious comparison,mainstream Christian denominations do not believe inreincarnation or thetransmigration of the soul, contrary to the beliefs of the Druze.[34] Christianity teachesevangelism, often through the establishment ofmissions, unlike the Druze who do not accept converts to their faith. Marriage outside the Druze faith is rare and is strongly discouraged. Similarities between the Druze and Christians include commonalities in their view ofmonogamousmarriage anddivorce, as well as belief in theoneness of God andtheophany.[34]
Christianity does not require malecircumcision, withcovenant theology teaching that the Christiansacrament ofbaptism fulfills the Israelite practice of circumcision, both being signs and seals of the covenant of grace.[37][38] Most mainstream Christian denominations currently maintain a neutral position on the practice of non-religious circumcision.[39][40] Male circumcision is commonly practiced in many predominantlyChristian countries and many Christian communities,[41] and in theCoptic Orthodox Church, theEthiopian Orthodox Church and theEritrean Orthodox Tewahedo Church it is seen as arite of passage.[42][43][44][45][46] While malecircumcision is widely practiced by the Druze,[47] the procedure is practiced as a cultural tradition, and has no religious significance in the Druze faith.[48] Some Druzes do not circumcise their male children, and refuse to observe this practice.[49]
Both faiths give a prominent place toJesus:[8][9] Jesus is the central figure of Christianity, and in the Druze faith, Jesus is considered an important prophet of God,[8][9] being among the seven prophets who appeared in different periods of history.[50] The Druze revere Jesus "the son ofJoseph andMary" and hisfour disciples, who wrote theGospels.[51] According to the Druze manuscripts Jesus is the Greatest Imam and the incarnation of UltimateReason (Akl) on earth and the first cosmic principle (Hadd),[51][52] and regards Jesus andHamza ibn Ali as the incarnations of one of the five great celestial powers, who form part of their system.[53] In the Druze tradition, Jesus is known under three titles: the True Messiah (al-Masih al-Haq), the Messiah of all Nations (Masih al-Umam), and the Messiah of Sinners. This is due, respectively, to the belief that Jesus delivered the true Gospel message, the belief that he was the Saviour of all nations, and the belief that he offers forgiveness.[54]
Both religions venerate theVirgin Mary,[55][56]John the Baptist,[57]Saint George,[58]Elijah,[57]Luke the Evangelist,[59]Job and other common figures.[59] Figures in theOld Testament such asAdam,Noah,Abraham, andMoses are considered important prophets of God in the Druze faith, being among the seven prophets who appeared in different periods of history.[8][9] In the Old Testament,Jethro was Moses' father-in-law, aKenite shepherd and priest ofMidian.[60]Shuaib or Jethro of Midian is considered an ancestor of the Druze who revere him as their spiritual founder and chief prophet.[61]
Historians notes that the Druze have historically maintained apositive relationship with Christians, as evidenced by shared traditions and social practices inMount Lebanon.[62][63] This interaction has led to overlapping symbols, customs, mutual veneration of saints and their shrines, and shared terminology for God.[64][65] Sites such as theChurch of Saidet et Tallé inDeir el Qamar, historically a popularMarian pilgrimage site among the Druze, exemplify this cultural exchange.[56] The Druze also venerate Christian saints likeSaint George and theProphet Elijah, admired for their "bravery and warrior-like qualities".[64] Scholar Pierre-Yves Beaurepaire observes that thesewarrior saints resonate with the Druze due to their parallels with Druze militarized traditions.[64]
Buddhism,Hinduism and Christianity differ in their fundamental beliefs with regard toheaven,hell andreincarnation, to name a few. From the Hindu perspective, heaven (Sanskritsvarga) and hell (Naraka) are temporary places, where everysoul has to live, either for the good deeds which they have done or for thesins which they have committed.
There are also significant similarities between Christian and Hindu theology, most notably, both religions present a trinitarian view of God. The HolyTrinity in Christianity, which consists of the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit, is sometimes seen as being roughly analogous to theTrimurti in Hinduism, whose members—Brahma,Vishnu, andShiva—are seen as the three principal manifestations ofBrahman, or Godhead. However, Brahma, Vishnu, and Shiva are recognized as distinct deities as opposed to a singular being, thus the Trimurti is closer tomodalist heresy than to orthodox trinitarian doctrine.
Christian-Hindu relations are a mixed affair. On one hand, Hinduism's natural tendency has been to recognize the divine basis of various other religions, and to revere their founders and saintly practitioners. In Western countries,Vedanta has influenced some Christian thinkers, while others in the anti-cult movement have reacted against the activities of immigrantgurus and their followers. (See also:Pierre Johanns,Abhishiktananda,Bede Griffiths,Dalit theology.)
TheChristian ashram movement, a movement withinChristianity inIndia, embraces Vedanta and the teachings of the East, attempting to combine the Christian faith with the Hinduashram model andChristian monasticism with the Hindusannyasa tradition.[66][circular reference]Brahmoism is considered a syncretism of Hinduism with Protestantism or Lutheranism.[67][68][69][70][71]
1.png)
Islam shares a number of beliefs with Christianity. They share similar views onjudgment, heaven, hell, spirits, angels, and afuture resurrection. Jesus is acknowledged as a prophet by Muslims. However, while Islam relegates the man Jesus the Christ to a lesser status than God — "in the company of those nearest to God" in theQur'an, mainstream (Trinitarian) Christianity since theCouncil of Nicea teaches without question the belief that Jesus is both fully man and fullyGod the Son, one of the threeHypostases (common English: persons) of Christianity'sTrinity, divinely co-equal and co-eternal with theFather and theHoly Spirit.
Both religions share the belief in thevirgin birth of Jesus,[72] hismiracles and healings, and they also share the belief that heascended bodily into heaven. However, Jesus is not accepted as theSon of God by Muslims, who strictly maintain the belief that he was ahuman being who was loved by God and exalted to the ranks of the most righteous by God. They believe that God is a single entity, and do not accept the first person in the Trinity as God as the vast majority of Christians do. Additionally, Muslims do not accept Jesus's literalcrucifixion and subsequentresurrection. Since Muslims believe in the worship of a strictly monotheistic form ofGod the Father who they do not believeassumed human form in the Holy Trinity through Jesus Christ, they do not accept the use oficons to worship God, which they considershirk (idolatry). Muslim influence played a part in the initiation oficonoclasm and their conquests caused theiconoclasm in theByzantine Empire.[73] For the same reason, they do not worship or pray toMuhammad,Jesus, or any other prophets; they only pray toGod.
Adherents of Islam have historically referred to themselves, Jews, and Christians (among others) asPeople of the Book since they all base their religion onAbrahamic books that are considered to have a divine origin.[74] Christians, with the notable exception ofChrislam adherents, neither recognize theQur'an as a genuine book of divine revelation, nor agree with its lowly assessment of Jesus only as a prophet, on par withMuhammad, nor for that matter accept that Muhammad was a genuine prophet of God. In the 7th century textConcerning Heresy,Saint John of Damascus namedIslam as Christologicalheresy, referring to it as the "heresy of the Ishmaelites" (seemedieval Christian views on Muhammad).[75] The position has remained popular in Christian circles well into the 20th century, by theologians such as the Congregationalist clericFrank Hugh Foster and the Roman Catholic historianHilaire Belloc, the latter of who described it as "the great and enduring heresy of Mohammed."[76][77]
Most Muslims, for their part, believe that parts of the Gospels, Torah and Jewish prophetic books have been forgotten, misinterpreted, or distorted by their followers. Based on that perspective, Muslims view the Qur'an as correcting the errors of traditionalJudeo-Christianity. For example, with the exception ofMessianic Islam and sometimesKoranism, Muslims in general on ananti-Catholic basis reject belief in theTrinity or any other expression of the divinity of Jesus as incompatible with monotheism.
Not surprisingly, the two faiths have often experienced mutual controversy and conflict (an example being theCrusades, fought in response to Islamic conquests and attitudes to non-Muslims, in the near and Middle East). At the same time, much fruitful dialogue has occurred with theCatholic Church as well, especially since in the wake of the modernizing liberal reforms ofVatican 2 regarding proper Catholic relations with many other major world religions. The writings of Catholic theologianThomas Aquinas frequently cite those of the Jewish philosopherMoses Maimonides, as well as Muslim thinkerAverroes ('Ibn-Rushd).
On the other hand, the two faiths have experienced mutual peaceful coexistence, interaction, and cultural and sociala, and there was a cultural and human exchange between theChristian andIslamic worlds. TheMuslim world is home to some of the world's mostancient Christian communities,[78] and some of the most important cities of theChristian world—including three of its five great patriarchates (Alexandria,Antioch, andConstantinople).[79] Scholars and intellectuals agreeChristians have made significant contributions to Arab and Islamic civilization since the introduction ofIslam,[80][81] and they have had a significant impact contributing the culture of theMiddle East and North Africa and other areas.[82][83][84]Pew Research Center estimates indicate that in 2010, more than 64 millionChristians lived in countries with Muslim majorities (excludingNigeria). The Pew Forum study finds thatIndonesia (21.1 million) has the largest Christian population in theMuslim world, followed byEgypt,Chad andKazakhstan.[85]
On May 6, 2001,Pope John Paul II, the first pope to pray in amosque, delivered an address atUmayyad Mosque inDamascus, saying: "It is important that Muslims and Christians continue to explore philosophical and theological questions together, in order to come to a more objective and comprehensive knowledge of each other's religious beliefs. Better mutual understanding will surely lead, at the practical level, to a new way of presenting our two religions not in opposition, as has happened too often in the past, but in partnership for the good of the human family." This Mosque of Damascus is famous for containing the head ofJohn the Baptist.
The relationship between Christianity andJudaism has been strained. In the past, Christians were often taught that "the Jews" killed Christ, for whose "murder" they bear acollective guilt (an interpretation which most majordenominations now reject). Meanwhile, Jews have tended to associate Christianity with variouspogroms, or in better times, they have tended to associate it with the dangers ofassimilation.Anti-Semitism has a long history in Christianity (seeAntisemitism in Christianity), and it is far from dead (for example, it exists incontemporary Russia). However, since theHolocaust, much dialogue which is aimed atChristian–Jewish reconciliation has taken place, and relations between Jews and Christians have greatly improved. Today, many conservative evangelicals supportChristian Zionism, much to the irritation ofArab Christians, partly based on theMillennialist belief that the modern state ofIsrael represents the fulfillment ofBiblical prophecy.
According toAnna Sapir Abulafia, most scholars agree that Jews and Christians in LatinChristendom lived in relative peace with one another until the 13th century.[86]: xii [87]: 3 Sicut Judaeis (the "Constitution for the Jews") was the official position of the papacy regarding Jews throughout the Middle Ages and later.[88] The firstpapal bull was issued in about 1120 byCalixtus II, intended to protect Jews who suffered during theFirst Crusade, and was reaffirmed by many popes, even until the 15th century although they were not always strictly upheld. The bull forbade, besides other things, Christians from coercing Jews to convert, or to harm them, or to take their property, or to disturb the celebration of their festivals, or to interfere with their cemeteries, on pain of excommunication.[89]
The phenomenon ofMessianic Judaism has become something of an irritant to Jewish / Christian relations.[citation needed] Messianic Jews—who generally seek to combine a Jewish identity with the recognition of Jesus—are rejected by mainstream Jewish groups,[citation needed] who dismiss Messianic Judaism as little more than Christianity with Jewish undertones.
The Jewish conception of themessiah (משיחmashiach in Hebrew) holds certain similarities to that of Christians, yet there are substantial differences. According toJews, theHebrew Scriptures contain a small number of prophecies concerning a future descendant of KingDavid, who will be anointed (Hebrew:moshiach) as the Jewish people's new leader and will establish the throne of David in Jerusalem forever. In the Jewish view, this fully human and mortal leader will rebuild the land ofIsrael and restore the Davidic Kingdom. This subject is covered in the section onJewish eschatology. Some Christians have a different understanding of the termmessiah, and believe that Jesus is the messiah referred to in theOld Testament prophecies; that the kingdom in these prophecies was to be aheavenly kingdom, not an earthly one; and that Jesus' words and actions in the New Testament provide evidence of his identity as messiah and that the remainder ofmessianic prophecy will be fulfilled in theSecond Coming. Other Christians acknowledge the Jewish definition ofmessiah, and hold that Jesus fulfills this, being 'fully man' (in addition to being 'fully God'), and believe that the Second Coming will establish the Kingdom of God on earth, where Jesus, as messiah and descendant from David, will reign from Jerusalem.
There are many parallels betweenMithraism, the religion ofSol Invictus, and Christianity.Aurelian is believed to have established theDies Natalis Solis Invicti (Day of the Birth of Sol Invictus) as an annual festival[citation needed] held on the day when the sun's dailydeclination visibly starts rising again after thewinter solstice, namely on December 25; the birth of the central figure was thus celebrated on the day which Christians later used to celebrate Jesus' birth (having always celebrated this onEpiphany).[90] Other similarities include the stories of Christ and Mithra as children being visited by shepherds, thetrinity, and the immortal soul.[citation needed] Sunday itself was imposed as the official day of rest byConstantine, who referred to it as theDay of the venerable Sun.[citation needed] (Although Christians worshiped on Sunday from at least 150 years before Constantine)[91]
The earliest attestation of Mithraism isPlutarch's record of it being practised in 68BC byCilician pirates, the first mithraists.[92]Tertullian, a Christian writer who lived between the 2nd and 3rd centuries, admitted there was a strong similarity between the practises of the two faiths:
the devil, ... mimics even the essential portions of the divine sacraments...he baptises some, that is his own believers, ... he promises the forgiveness of sins... Mithraism, .... also celebrates theoblation of bread, and introduces a symbol of the resurrection... - Tertullian[93]
Justin Martyr, an earlier 2nd centuryChurch Father, agreed that the similarities existed, claiming that Mithraism had copied theEucharist.[94] Justin argued that the devil had invented Mithraism to mock Christianity.[94] Christian apologistRonald H. Nash stated:
allegations of an early Christian dependence on Mithraism have been rejected on many grounds. Mithraism had no concept of the death and resurrection of its god and no place for any concept of rebirth—at least during its early stages...During the early stages of the cult, the notion of rebirth would have been foreign to its basic outlook...Moreover, Mithraism was basically a military cult. Therefore, one must be skeptical about suggestions that it appealed to nonmilitary people like the early Christians.[95]
In the 2008 bookVintage Jesus: Timeless Answers to Timely Questions, authors Mark Driscoll and Gerry Breshears write: "According to Scientology, Jesus is an 'implant' forced upon a Thetan about a million years ago",[96] and Jack Huberman writes in101 People Who Are Really Screwing America that in Scientology Jesus is seen as having been "implanted in humanity's collective memory", by the characterXenu fromScientology space opera.[97]
Professor Paul Blankenship of theMemphis Theological Seminary studied Scientology and commented on this view, saying "They do not do a lot of talking about God or Jesus. It's more getting your mind cleared, and I could see how they could say that that could be compatible. Scientology has not really developed into a complete religious tradition. They may very well develop."[98]
The Church of Scientology claims that their belief system is different from Christianity because it is based "solely on reason" and that its members "possess a practical system of ethics and justice." The church likewise claims that "anything religious teachers said or Buddha promised, even the visions of Christianity, are attained in Scientology as a result." Muck, Netland and McDermott emphasize that this clearly shows that Scientology is incompatible with Christianity.[99]
In the bookNew Religions and the Theological Imagination in America (1995) by Mary Farrell Bednarowski, the author comments that "In the game of life as Scientology understands it, sin does not call for repentance as much as it does the eradication of error, and that must come through the technology, the auditing process, sometimes referred to as pastoral counseling. In fact, in regard to getting rid of sin, Scientology sees parallels between the goals of its technology and Jesus's saving action."[100] Bednarowski quotes from the Scientology publicationThe Scientology Catechism in noting these parallels between the stated mission of Scientologists and the teachings imparted by Christ to his disciples.[100] She notes that Scientology founderL. Ron Hubbard is not regarded in Scientology as a "divine savior", but rather a "loved friend and teacher".[100] Writing inSigns of the Times: The New Religious Movements in Theological Perspective (1996),John A. Saliba cites Mary Bednarowski, and goes on to note "Helle Medgaard asserts that Scientology also misunderstands Jesus and repudiates the key Christian doctrine of the forgiveness of sins."[101] In his bookThe Sociology of Religious Movements (1996),William Sims Bainbridge cites the research ofRoy Wallis, in noting "Scientology ... has no discernible connection to Christianity".[102]
Many scholars[103] believe that theeschatology ofJudaism and the idea ofmonotheism as a whole possibly originated inZoroastrianism, and it may have been transferred to Judaism during theBabylonian captivity, and it eventually influenced Christian theology. Bible scholar P.R. Ackroyd states: "the whole eschatological scheme, however, of the Last Judgment, rewards and punishments, etc., within which immortality is achieved, is manifestly Zoroastrian in origin and inspiration."[104] However, the theory is questioned by other mainstream historians and scholars.The Oxford History of the Biblical World states "There is little if any effect of Zoroastrian elements on Judaism in the Persian period."[105] Nevertheless, scholars such as Soloman Nigosian contend, in regarding the similar ideas of Zoroaster and later Jewish writers, that "the ideas were indigenous to Iran...it is hardly conceivable that some of the characteristic ideas and practices in Judaism, Christianity, and Islam came into being without Zoroastrian influence."[106] The new faith (Zoroastrianism) emerged in larger Persian empires. "Zoroastrianism reflected the cosmopolitan society of the empires". During this time Zoroastrianism profoundly effected the beliefs and values of Judaism, Christianity, and Islam ("Traditions & Encounters: A brief global History", Jerry H. Bentley. pg. 93). It is also possible that Zoroastrianism and later Jewish theology came from a common source.
For more on this theory, seeJewish history,Judaism, andZoroastrianism.
In the YoungerAvesta, three divinities of the Zoroastrian pantheon are repeatedly identified as ahuric, meaning that each, asAhura, act together in both representing and protectingAsha, or the divine truth governing the universe. These three areAhura Mazda,Mithra andBurz, and hence known as the "Ahuric triad." Similarities with the Christian Trinity can be seen between Ahura Mazda and God the Father, Mithra and Christ the Logos, as well as between Burz and the Holy Spirit, both of which are associated symbolically with water. Both Zoroastrianism and Christianity consider themselves to be monotheistic, but like all other monotheisms they have highlighted certain aspects or energies of the divine to emphasize, and these are not meant to be interpreted as separate divinities. In both religions there are guardianangels, orfravashi, which are considered to be created beings and are distinct from theEnergies of God or divine emanations. The Zoroastrian termyazata, however, has variously been interpreted as meaning emanations or "sparks" of the divine, or as being roughly synonymous with the term "angels." There have been various theories on the possible relationship between these aspects of Zoroastrianism and ideas of divine emanation inesoteric Christianity, JewishKabbalah, Islamic mysticism (Sufism), and other religious systems, such asGnosticism,Yazidism, and theDruze, among others.
| This sectiondoes notcite anysources. Please helpimprove this section byadding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged andremoved.(April 2021) (Learn how and when to remove this message) |
The spread of Christianity has been international, and in some cases it has entirely displaced the religions of those people who it was proselytized to and it has also altered their customs. At times, this centuries-long process has been met with violent opposition, and likewise, the spread of Christianity has been carried out with martial force in some cases. To some extent, the relationship between Christianity and other faiths has been encumbered by this history, and modern Christians, particularly in the West, have expressed embarrassment over the violence which existed in Christianity's past.
The conversion of adherents of other religions is widely accepted within Christianity. Many Christian organizations believe that they have a duty to make converts among every people. In recent years,ecumenism and dialogue between different religions has been endorsed by many official representatives of the Christian churches, as a way of effecting reconciliation between Christian people and people of other faiths, leading to many cases of reconciliation. In some cases, this endorsement is accompanied by a complete disavowal of all proselytizing efforts under the banner ofreligious pluralism.
This is specially marked by the inauguration, or installation, of Archbishop of York DrJohn Sentamu from Uganda, on November 29, 2005. Dr Sentamu is the first black African archbishop of the Church of England. He is also the first archbishop to beat bongo drums in the cathedral at his own inauguration. The newspaper Guardian, which dedicated the double middle page of the following day's issue to a full picture of the grinning archbishop in full apparel at the porch of the cathedral, said that:"Dr Sentamu's sermon was a stern lecture to the Church of England to grow out of being a 'judgmental and moralising' congregation of 'pew-fillers, sermon-taters, Bible readers, even born-again believers and Spirit-filled charismatics' and go out to make friends in the world. 'We have lost the joy and power that makes real disciples and we've become consumers of religion, not disciples of Jesus-Christ', he said. 'Christians, go and make friends among Buddhists, Hindus, Jews, Muslims, Sikhs, agnostics, atheists, not for the purpose of converting them to your beliefs but for friendship, understanding, listening, hearing.' His remarks were greeted with applause, not with silence as the order of the service instructed."
A special case is the issue ofChristian–Jewish reconciliation, in which significant reconciliation has been reached.
Christian converts have often carried some of their former customs into their new faith. On occasion, this has led tosyncretisms, that are often not accepted by mainstream Christians:
{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link){{cite book}}:ISBN / Date incompatibility (help)the Druze had been able to live in harmony with the Christian
.. Europeans who visited the area during this period related that the Druze "love the Christians more than the other believers," and that they "hate the Turks, the Muslims and the Arabs [Bedouin] with an intense hatred.
..the Druzes and Christians lived together in the most perfect harmony and good-will..
the Druzes and the Christians in the Shuf Mountains in the past lived in complete harmony..
the conversion to Christianity of several Muslim and Druze families aided this growth immeasurably
some Christians (mostly from the Orthodox faith), as well as Druze, converted to Protestantism...
Many of the Druze have chosen to deemphasize their ethnic identity, and some have officially converted to Christianity.
US Druze settled in small towns and kept a low profile, joining Protestant churches (usually Presbyterian or Methodist) and often Americanizing their names..
So did other amirs, like the originally Druze Abi-llamah family, which also became Maronite
the Maronites and the Druze, who founded Lebanon in the early eighteenth century.
Druze religious beliefs developed out of Isma'ill teachings. Various Jewish, Christian, Gnostic, Neoplatonic, and Iranian elements, however, are combined under a doctrine of strict monotheism.
Christian theology generally interprets male circumcision to be an Old Testament rule that is no longer an obligation ... though in many countries (especially the United States and Sub-Saharan Africa, but not so much in Europe) it is widely practiced among Christians
Uniformly practiced by Jews, Muslims, and the members of Coptic, Ethiopian, and Eritrean Orthodox Churches, male circumcision remains prevalent in many regions of the world, particularly Africa, South and East Asia, Oceania, and Anglosphere countries.
Male circumcision is standard practice, by tradition, among the Druze
Circumcision is not compulsory and has no religious significance.
There are many references to the Druze refusal to observe this common Muslim practice, one of the earliest being the rediscoverer of the ruins of Petra, John Burckhardt. "The Druses do not circumcise their children
...Druze believe in seven prophets: Adam, Noah, Abraham, Moses, Jesus, Muhammad, and Muhammad ibn Ismail ad-Darazi..
Jesus is known in the Druze tradition as the "True Messiah" (al-Masih al-Haq), for he delivered what Druzes view as the true message. He is also referred to as the "Messiah of the Nations" (Masih al-Umam) because he was sent to the world as "Masih of Sins" because he is the one who forgives.
They also cover the lives and teachings of some biblical personages, such as Job, Jethro, Jesus, John, Luke, and others
The old opinion of John of Damascus continues to persist among Christian orientalists. The author here replies to Frank Hugh Foster (see 233), who said that Islam is in fact heretical Christianity.
Christian contributions to art, culture, and literature in the Arab-Islamic world; Christian contributions education and social advancement in the region.
