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Christianity and Druze areAbrahamic religions that share a historical traditional connection with some major theological differences.[2] The two faiths share a common place of origin in theMiddle East and are bothmonotheistic.[3]Christian andDruze communities share a long history of interaction dating back roughly a millennium, particularly inMount Lebanon.[1] Over the centuries, they have interacted and lived together peacefully, sharing common social and cultural landscapes, despite occasional exceptions.[1] Moreover, Druze beliefs,scriptures and teachings incorporate several elements fromChristianity.[4]Historically, the relationship between theDruze andChristians has been characterized by harmony and peacefulcoexistence,[5][6][7][1] with amicable relations between the two groups prevailing throughout history, with the exception of some periods, including1860 Mount Lebanon civil war.[8] In theLevant region, theconversion of Druze to Christianity was a common practice.[9][10] Throughout history, there have been instances where prominent members of the Druze community, including some ofShihab dynasty members,[11] as well as the Abi-Lamma clan, embraced Christianity.[12][13]
TheMaroniteCatholics and the Druze set the foundation for what is nowLebanon in the early 18th century, through a governing and social system known as the "Maronite-Druze dualism" inMount Lebanon Mutasarrifate.[14] Interaction betweenChristians (members of theMaronite,Eastern Orthodox,Melkite, and other churches) and the Druze resulted in the establishment and existence of mixed villages and towns inMount Lebanon,Chouf,[1]Wadi al-Taym,[15]Jabal al-Druze,[16][17] theGalilee region,Mount Carmel, and theGolan Heights.[18]
Druze doctrine teaches thatChristianity is to be "esteemed and praised", as theGospel writers are regarded as "carriers of wisdom".[19] Additionally, the Druze catechism prophesies the dominance of Christianity over Islam in theLast Judgment.[19][20] The Druze faith incorporates some elements ofChristianity,[4][21] along with adopting Christian elements and teachings found in theEpistles of Wisdom.[22] Both religions revered and holdJesus in high regard as a central figure and the awaitedmessiah,[23][24][25] alongside other shared figures such as theVirgin Mary,[26]John the Baptist,[27][28]Saint George,[29]Elijah,[27]Luke the Evangelist,[30] andJob.[30] Moreover, important figures from theOld Testament such asAdam,Noah,Abraham,Moses, andJethro are considered important prophets of God in the Druze faith, being among the seven prophets who appeared in different periods of history.[23][24]
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Christianity is anAbrahamicmonotheistic religion based on thelife and teachings ofJesus of Nazareth. Its adherents, known as Christians, believe that Jesus is theChrist, whose coming as theMessiah wasprophesied in theOld Testament, and chronicled in theNew Testament.[31] Theprimary scripture of Christianity is the Bible.[32] It is theworld's largest religion with about 2.4 billion followers.[33]
Jethro ofMidian is considered an ancestor ofDruze, who revere him as their spiritual founder and chief prophet.[34][35][36][37][38]Druzism is amonotheistic andAbrahamic religion based on the teachings ofHamza ibn-'Ali ibn-Ahmad and the sixthFatimid caliphAl-Hakim bi-Amr Allah, and Greekphilosophers such asPlato,Aristotle,Pythagoras, andZeno of Citium.[39][40] TheEpistles of Wisdom (Rasa'il al-Hikmah;Arabic:رَسَائِل ٱلْحِكْمَة) is the foundational text of the Druze faith.[41] Even though the faith originally developed fromIsmaili Islam, the Druze do not identify asMuslims and no longer consider themselves as such.[42][43][44][45]The number of Druze people worldwide is between 800,000 and one million, with the vast majority residing in theLevant.[46]
The Druze faith originated inIsma'ilism, further split from it as it developed its own unique doctrines, and finally separated from both Ismāʿīlīsm and Islam altogether;[43][47][48] these include the belief that the ImamAl-Ḥākim bi-Amr Allāh wasGod incarnate.[49][50] According to various scholars, the Druze faith "diverge substantially from Islam, bothSunni andShia".[51][52] Historian David R. W. Bryer defines the Druzes asghulat of Isma'ilism, as they exaggerated the cult of theal-Hakim bi-Amr Allah and considered him divine.[49] He also defines the Druze as a religion that deviated from Islam,[53] noting that as a result of this deviation, the Druze faith "seems as different from Islam as Islam is from Christianity or Christianity is from Judaism".[54] Despite originating fromIsma'ilism, a branch of Islam, the Druze do not consider themselvesMuslims,[42][44][55][56][57][58] and they do not adhere to theFive Pillars of Islam.[43]
In terms of religious comparison,mainstream Christian denominations do not believe inreincarnation or thetransmigration of the soul, contrary to the beliefs of the Druze;[59] on the other hand,reincarnation is a paramount tenet in theDruze faith.[60] Christianity teachesevangelism, often through the establishment ofmissions, unlike the Druze who do not accept converts to their faith. Marriage outside the Druze faith is rare and is strongly discouraged. Similarities between the Druze and Christians include commonalities in their view ofmonogamousmarriage, as well asthe forbidding of divorce and remarriage, in addition to the belief in theoneness of God andtheophany.[59] The Druze faith incorporates some elements of Christianity,[4][21] and other religious beliefs.
God in Christianity is believed to be theeternal, supreme being whocreated andpreserves all things.[61][62][63][64] Christians believe in amonotheistic conception of God, which is bothtranscendent (wholly independent of, and removed from, the material universe) andimmanent (involved in the material universe).[61][62][63][64] Christian teachings on the transcendence, immanence, and involvement of God in the world and his love for humanity exclude the belief that God is of the same substance as the created universe (rejection ofpantheism) but accept that God the Son assumedhypostatically united human nature, thus becoming man in a unique event known as "theIncarnation".[61][65][66][67]
The Druze conception of the deity is declared by them to be one of strict and uncompromising unity. The main Druze doctrine states that God is bothtranscendent andimmanent, in which he is above all attributes, but at the same time, he is present.[68] In their desire to maintain a rigid confession of unity, they stripped from God all attributes (tanzīh). In God, there are no attributes distinct from his essence. He is wise, mighty, and just, not by wisdom, might, and justice, but by his own essence. God is "the whole of existence", rather than "above existence" or on his throne, which would make him "limited". There is neither "how", "when", nor "where" about him; he is incomprehensible.[68]
Reincarnation is a paramount tenet in theDruze faith.[60] There is an eternalduality of the body and the soul and it is impossible for the soul to exist without the body. Therefore, reincarnations occur instantly at one's death. While in the Hindu and Buddhist belief system a soul can be transmitted to any living creature, in the Druze belief system this is not possible and a human soul will only transfer to a human body. Furthermore, souls cannot be divided into different or separate parts and the number of souls existing is finite.[71] A male Druze can be reincarnated only as another male Druze and a female Druze only as another female Druze. A Druze cannot be reincarnated in the body of a non-Druze.[71] The cycle of rebirth is continuous and the only way to escape is through a complete soul purification . When this occurs, the soul is united with the Cosmic Mind and achieves the ultimate goal.[71]
In the major Christian denominations, the concept of reincarnation is not present and it is nowhere explicitly referred to in the Bible. However, the impossibility of a second earthly death is stated by 1 Peter 3:18–20,[72] where it affirms that the messiah,Jesus of Nazareth, died once forever for the sins of all the human kind. Matthew 14:1–2[73] mentions that kingHerod Antipas took Jesus to be a risenJohn the Baptist,[74] when introducing the story of John's execution at Herod's orders. Some Christian theologians interpret certain Biblical passages as referring to reincarnation. These passages include the questioning of Jesus as to whether he is Elijah, John the Baptist, Jeremiah, or another prophet (Matthew 16:13–15 andJohn 1:21–22) and, less clearly (while Elijah was said not to have died, but to have been taken up to heaven), John the Baptist being asked if he is not Elijah (John 1:25).[75][76][77]
Around the 11–12th century inEurope, several reincarnationist movements were persecuted as heresies, through the establishment of theInquisition in the LatinChristendom. These included theCathar, Paterene or Albigensian church ofwestern Europe, thePaulician movement, which arose in Armenia,[78] and theBogomils in Bulgaria.[79] Christian sects such as the Bogomils and the Cathars, who professed reincarnation and other gnostic beliefs, were referred to as "Manichaean", and are today sometimes described by scholars as "Neo-Manichaean".[80] As there is no known Manichaean mythology or terminology in the writings of these groups there has been some dispute among historians as to whether these groups truly were descendants of Manichaeism.[81]
TheDruze faith further split fromIsma'ilism as it developed its own unique doctrines, and finally separated from both Ismāʿīlīsm and Islam altogether; these include the belief that the ImamAl-Ḥākim bi-Amr Allāh wasGod incarnate.[50][49]Hamza ibn Ali ibn Ahmad is considered the founder of theDruze faith and the primary author of the Druze manuscripts,[82] he proclaimed that God became flesh, assumed a human nature, and became a man in the form ofal-Hakim bi-Amr Allah.[50]
Historian David R. W. Bryer defines the Druzes asghulat of Isma'ilism, since they exaggerated the cult of the caliph al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah and considered him divine; he also defines the Druzes as a religion that deviated from Islam.[83] He also added that as a result of this deviation, the Druze faith "seems as different from Islam as Islam is from Christianity or Christianity is from Judaism".[49]
The incarnation of Jesus is the central Christian doctrine that God became flesh, assumed a human nature, and became a man in the form of Jesus, theSon of God and the second person of theTrinity. This foundational Christian position holds that the divine nature of the Son of God was perfectly united with human nature in one divine Person, Jesus, making him both truly God and truly human. The theological term for this ishypostatic union: the second person of the Trinity,God the Son, became flesh when he was miraculously conceived in the womb of theVirgin Mary.[84]
Christianity does not require malecircumcision,[85] withcovenant theology teaching that the Christiansacrament ofbaptism fulfills the Israelite practice of circumcision, both being signs and seals of the covenant of grace.[86][87] Most mainstream Christian denominations currently maintain a neutral position on the practice of non-religious circumcision.[88][89] Male circumcision is commonly practiced in many predominantlyChristian countries and many Christian communities.[90][91][92][93][94] In theCoptic Orthodox Church, theEthiopian Orthodox Church and theEritrean Orthodox Tewahedo Church male circumcision is an established practice,[95][96] and require that their male members undergo circumcision, and it is seen as arite of passage.[97][98][99][100]
While male circumcision is widely practiced by the Druze,[101] the procedure is practiced as a cultural tradition, and has no religious significance in the Druze faith.[102] There is no special date for this act in theDruze faith: male Druze infants are usually circumcised shortly after birth,[103] however some remain uncircumcised until the age of ten or older.[103] Some Druzes do not circumcise their male children, and refuse to observe this "common Muslim practice".[104]
From the earliest days of the Christian faith, Christian teaching have viewedmarriage as a divinely blessed, lifelong,monogamous unionbetween a man and a woman.[105] However, while many Christians might agree with the traditional definition, the terminology andtheological views of marriage have varied through time in different countries, and among Christian denominations. The Bible and its traditional interpretations in Christianity have historically affirmed and endorsed apatriarchal andheteronormative approach towardshuman sexuality,[105] favouring exclusivelypenetrative vaginal intercourse between men and women within the boundaries of marriage over all other forms ofhuman sexual activity.[106] Christian teaching has never held that marriage is necessary for everyone; historically Christians who did not marry were expected to refrain from allsexual activity, as were those who tookholy orders ormonastic vows.
The Druze rejection ofpolygamy, unlike intraditional Islamic traditions, highlights a significant alignment with Christianity. While the Druze cite certainQuranic verses to justify their position, it more closely mirrors the Christian perspective on marriage.[107] Additionally, the practice ofmonasticism by some Druze sheikhs is highly regarded within their community. It's not uncommon for a sheikh to request celibacy from his fiancée, and many Druze sheikhs remain unmarried throughout their lives.[108] In Druze belief, sex is seen not as an end in itself but as a means ofreproduction, with certain sexual forms consideredsinful.[108] This demonstrates the Druze adherence to Christian teachings on marriage and the value of marital mutual relationships. Overall, the Druze community's approach to marriage closely resembles that of Christians.[108]
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In terms ofinterfaith marriage, many Christian denominations caution against it, citing verses of the New Testament that prohibit it such as2 Corinthians 6:14–15, while certain Christian denominations have made allowances for interfaith marriage, which is referenced in1 Corinthians 7:14–15, verses whereSaint Paul addresses originally non-Christian couples in which one of the spousesconverts to Christianity after the marriage between two originally non-Christian persons had already taken place.[110][111][112] Many Christian denominations, such as theEastern Orthodox andOriental Orthodox Churches, discourage or forbid interfaith marriage. They require the non-Christian partner toconvert to Christianity and undergobaptism for themarriage to be permitted. TheCatholic Church allows Catholics to marry non-baptized individuals, such as Jews and Muslims, in the church through a legal provision known as the "pauline privilege". This is allowed provided there is no risk to the Catholic partner's faith or to the upbringing of children in the Catholic faith.[113] On the other hand, theAssyrian Church regulations state that a Christian woman is not allowed to marry a non-Christian, while a Christian man is allowed to marry a non-Christian woman.[114][115]
The Druze doctrine does not permit outsiders to convert to their religion, as only one who is born to Druze parents can be considered a Druze. Marriage outside the Druze faith is uncommon and strongly discouraged for both males and females. If a Druze individual, whether male or female, marries a non-Druze, they may face ostracism and marginalization from their community.[116] Since a non-Druze partner cannot convert to the Druze faith, the couple cannot have Druze children, as the Druze faith can only be inherited from two Druze parents at birth.[117] Marrying a non-Druze, whether male or female, is viewed asapostasy from the Druze religion.[118] The Druze community holds a negative perception of apostates who marry outside the religion. Consequently, those who leave the Druze religion due to interfaith marriage are forced to leave their village and are exiled to distant, non-Druze areas. This religious and social pressure leads to their isolation and classification as outcasts within their Druze community.[118]
Druze doctrine teaches thatChristianity is to be "esteemed and praised" as theGospel writers are regarded as "carriers of wisdom".[19] Both religions revereJesus,[23][24] theVirgin Mary,[26]John the Baptist,[27][28]Saint George,[119]Elijah,[27]Luke the Evangelist,[30]Job,Zechariah,Ezekiel,Zebulun,Sabbas the Sanctified and other common figures.[30] The Druze faith shows influence ofChristian monasticism, among other religious practices.[120]
Figures in theOld Testament such asAdam,Noah,Abraham,Moses, are considered important prophets of God in the Druze faith, being among the seven prophets who appeared in different periods of history.[23][24] Noah, Abraham, Moses, Elijah, Ezekiel andJob are recognised asprophets in Christianity.[121] In theOld Testament,Jethro was Moses' father-in-law, aKenite shepherd and priest ofMidian.[122]Muslim scholars and theDruze identify Jethro with the prophetShuaib, also said to come fromMidian.[34][35]Shuaib or Jethro of Midian is considered an ancestor of the Druze who revere him as their spiritual founder and chief prophet.[123]
Christian saints such asMarina the Monk are also honored among the Druze, who refer to her as "Al-Sitt Sha'wani'", the shrine of "Al-Sitt Sha'wani'" is located in the region of Amiq on the slopes of Mount Barouk to the east, overlooking theBeqaa Valley andMount Hermon.[124] Due to the Christian influence on the Druze faith, twoChristian saints become the Druze's favorite venerated figures:Saint George and the ProphetElijah.[125] According to scholar Ray Jabre Mouawad, the Druze appreciated the two saints for their bravery,Saint George because he confronted the dragon and the Prophet Elijah because he competed with the pagan priests ofBaal and won over them.[125] In both cases the explanations provided by Christians are that Druzes were attracted towarrior saints that resemble their own militarized society.[125] Saint George is considered thepatron saint ofLebanese Christians,[126]Palestinian Christians,[127]Syrian Christians,[128] and the Druze.[129]
Salman the Persian is honored as a prophet in the Druze faith, and as an incarnation of the monotheistic idea.[130][131] As a practicingZoroastrian, he dedicated much of his early life to studying to become amagus, though he later became preoccupied with travelling throughoutWestern Asia to engage in interfaith dialogue with other religious groups. His quests eventually prompted his conversion to Christianity and later his conversion toIslam, which occurred after he met and befriendedMuhammad in the city ofYathrib.[132] In 587 he met aNestorian Christian group and was impressed by them. Against the wishes of his father, he left his family to join them.[133] His family imprisoned him afterwards to prevent him but he escaped.[133]
Both faiths give a prominent place toJesus:[23][24] Jesus is the central figure of Christianity, and in theDruze faith, Jesus is considered an important prophet of God,[23][24] being among the seven prophets who appeared in different periods of history.[134]
Jesus is the central figure of Christianity.[135] Although Christian views of Jesus vary, it is possible to summarize the key beliefs shared among majordenominations, as stated in theircatechetical orconfessional texts.[136][137][138] Christian views of Jesus are derived from various sources, including the canonical gospels andNew Testament letters such as thePauline epistles and theJohannine writings. These documents outline the key beliefs held by Christians about Jesus, including his divinity, humanity, and earthly life, and that he is the Christ and theSon of God.[139] Despite their many shared beliefs, not all Christian denominations agree on all doctrines, and bothmajor and minor differences on teachings and beliefs have persisted throughout Christianity for centuries.[63]
Christian doctrines include the beliefs that Jesus was conceived by theHoly Spirit, wasborn of a virgin namedMary, performedmiracles, founded the Christian Church, died bycrucifixion as a sacrifice to achieveatonement for sin, rose from the dead, andascended intoHeaven, from where hewill return. Commonly,Christians believe Jesus enables people to be reconciled to God. TheNicene Creed asserts that Jesus willjudge the living and the dead[140] eitherbefore orafter theirbodily resurrection,[141][142] an event tied to theSecond Coming of Jesus inChristian eschatology.[143] The great majority of Christians worship Jesus as the incarnation of God the Son, the second of threepersons of theTrinity. A small minority ofChristian denominationsreject Trinitarianism, wholly or partly, as non-scriptural.[144][page needed]
In theDruze Faith,Jesus is considered and revered as one of the seven spokesmen or prophets (natiq), defined as messengers or intermediaries between God and mankind, along withAdam,Noah,Abraham,Moses,Muhammad andMuhammad ibn Isma'il, each of them sent in a different period of history to preach the message of God.[145] The Druze venerateJesus "the son of Joseph and Mary" and hisfour disciples, who wrote the Gospels.[145] According to the Druze manuscripts Jesus is the Greatest Imam and the incarnation of UltimateReason (ʿAql) on earth and the first cosmic principle (Ḥadd),[145] and regards Jesus andHamza ibn Ali as the incarnations of one of the five great celestial powers, who form part of their system.[146] Druze doctrines include the beliefs that Jesus wasborn of a virgin namedMary, performedmiracles, and died bycrucifixion.[145] Druze doctrines include thatHamza ibn Ali took Jesus down from the cross and allowed him to return to his family, to prepare men for the preaching of his religion.[145]
In the Druze tradition,Jesus is known under three titles: the True Messiah (al-Masiḥ al-Haqq), the Messiah of all Nations (Masiḥ al-Umam), and the Messiah of Sinners. This is due, respectively, to the belief that Jesus delivered the true Gospel message, the belief that he was the Saviour of all nations, and the belief that he offers forgiveness.[25] The Druze shrine of "Sayyidna al-Masih" (Our Lord Jesus), one of the most important religious sites for the Druze, is located on a high mountain peak in the Al-Bajjah area ofAs-Suwayda Governorate. According to Druze tradition, Jesus sought sanctuary on this summit and held a clandestine meeting with hisdisciples there.[147]
Druze believe that Hamza ibn Ali was areincarnation of Jesus,[148] and thatHamza ibn Ali is the true Messiah, who directed the deeds of the Messiah Jesus "the son of Joseph and Mary", but when Jesus "the son of Joseph and Mary" strayed from the path of the true Messiah, Hamza filled the hearts of the Jews with hatred for him – and for that reason, they crucified him, according to the Druze manuscripts.[145][149] Despite this,Hamza ibn Ali took him down from the cross and allowed him to return to his family, to prepare men for the preaching of his religion.[145] In an epistle ascribed to one of the founders of Druzism,Baha al-Din al-Muqtana,[150] probably written sometime between AD 1027 and AD 1042, accused the Jews ofcrucifying Jesus.[151]
TheDruze believe that each spokesmen or prophets (natiq) has a "foundation" or "guardian" who is responsible for theesoteric, interpretative law, while the spokesmen or prophets (natiq) himself presents the apparent,obligatory law.[152] According to Druze belief, Jesus, son ofJoseph and Mary, the first limit and fifth spokesman or prophetnatiq, appeared and replacedMoses' law with his own, proclaiming his message and appointingSimon Peter (Sham'un al-Safa) as his foundation.[152] He hadtwelve apostles who called people to worship and unify the God and to obey Jesus, considered the son of theGod the Father. However, his followers did not fully understand his words and symbols.[152]
Both religions revereJohn the Baptist,[27][28]Saint George, andElijah.[27] Druze, believe that Elijah came back as John the Baptist,[69][70] or as Saint George, since they belief in reincarnation and the transmigration of the soul, Druze believe that El Khidr and John the Baptist and Saint George are one and the same.[70] Elijah is a central figure of Druzism, and he consideredpatron of the Druze people.[69]
Due to the Christian influence on the Druze faith, twoChristian saints become the Druze's favorite venerated figures: Saint George and the Prophet Elijah.[125] Thus, in all the villages inhabited by the Druze and Christians in centralMount Lebanon, a Christian church or Druze maqam is dedicated to either the Prophet Elijah or Saint George.[125] The reverence for Saint George, who is often identified withAl-Khidr, is deeply integrated into various aspects of Druze culture and religious practices.[153]
According to scholar Ray Jabre Mouawad, the Druze appreciated the two saints for their bravery,Saint George because he confronted the dragon and the Prophet Elijah because he competed with the pagan priests ofBaal and won over them.[125] In both cases the explanations provided by Christians are that Druzes were attracted towarrior saints that resemble their own militarized society.[125] The Druze environment influenced in turn the Christians, and Christians living among Druze started to use the same word forsome their churches, callingmaqām instead ofkanīsah church.[125] Saint George is seen as a guardian of theDruze community and a symbol of their enduring faith and resilience. Additionally, Saint George is regarded as a protector and healer in Druze tradition.[153] The story ofSaint George slaying the dragon is interpreted allegorically, representing the triumph of good over evil and the protection of the faithful from harm.[153]
Cave of Elijah is the name used for twogrottoes onMount Carmel, inHaifa, Israel, associated withBiblicalprophetElijah. The main shrine known as the "Cave of Elijah" is located on Haifa's Allenby Road, onMount Carmel, approximately 40 m above sea level. For centuries, it has been a destination forJewish,Christian,Muslim andDruze pilgrims.[154] The Cave of Elijah in Allenby Road is divided into twos sections for praying, one for men and one for women; the cave is behind a velvet curtain.[155] The Cave is also known as el-Khader inArabic.[154] The Druze regard it as holy,[154] and many among them identify Elijah as "el-Khidr", the green prophet who symbolizes water and life. The cave has been considered by some as miracle-working. Sick people are said to be brought to the Cave in hope that they will be cured.A second grotto, also associated with Elijah, is located nearby, under the altar of the main church of theStella Maris Monastery, also on Mount Carmel.[156]
Druze tradition honors several "mentors" and "prophets", and Elijah (Khidr) is honored as aprophet.[157]Druze venerate Elijah, and he is considered a central figure inDruzism.[158] And due to his importance in Druzism, the settlement of Druze onMount Carmel had partly to do with Elijah's story and devotion. There are two large Druze towns on the eastern slopes ofMount Carmel:Daliyat al-Karmel andIsfiya.[158] The Druze regard theCave of Elijah as holy,[154] and identify Elijah as "El-Khidr", the green prophet who symbolizes water and life, a miracle who cures the sick.[154]
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Druze, like some Christians, believe that Elijah came back asJohn the Baptist,[69][70] or asSaint George, since they belief in reincarnation and the transmigration of the soul, Druze believe that El Khidr and John the Baptist are one and the same.[70]
Saint George is described as a prophetic figure in Druze sources;[153] and in some sources he is identified withElijah or Mar Elias,[153] and in others asal-Khidr.[159] Druze believe that Elijah came back as John the Baptist and as Saint George, and the Druze version of the story of al-khidr wassyncretized with the story ofSaint George and the Dragon.[153]
The shrine of al-Khidr is located in the village ofKafr Yasif near the city ofAcre on theMediterranean coast. It is considered one of the most famous shrines in Druze religion.[147] The prophet's name is "Sidna Abu Ibrahim" and he is nicknamedNabi Al-Khidr (the Green One). Al-Khidr is identified withElijah the prophet and, according to Druze belief, is one of the founders of their religion. The nickname El-Khidr (the Green One) comes from the belief that his memory will always be fresh like a green plant.[160][161]Ziyarat al-Nabi al-Khidr is an Israeli Druze festival calledZiyara celebrated on 25 January which is officially recognized in Israel as a public holiday for Druzes, the celebration starts on 24 January and concludes on 25 January, with many religious leaders from all the religions inIsrael, and also political leaders (occasionally also the PM), coming to congratulate the Israeli Druze community during their festivities at theMaqam Al-Khidr inKafr Yasif.[162][163][164][165] Religious leaders or sheikhs fromMount Carmel, theGalilee and theGolan Heights take the opportunity to discuss religious issues.
The Cave of Elijah is agrotto that appears in theHebrew Bible, where the prophet Elijah took shelter during a journey into the wilderness (1 Kings 19:8).[166] The exact location of the cave is unknown. There is a "Cave of Elijah" onMount Carmel approximately 40 m above sea level inHaifa. For centuries it has been a pilgrimage destination for Jewish, Christian, Druze,[154] and Muslim people. Another cave associated with Elijah is located nearby, under the altar of the main church of theStella Maris Monastery, also on Mount Carmel.[167][168]
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The ChristianNew Testament notes that some people thought that Jesus was, in some sense, Elijah,[169] but it also makes clear thatJohn the Baptist is "the Elijah" who was promised to come inMalachi 3:1;4:5.[170] According to accounts in all three of theSynoptic Gospels, Elijah appeared withMoses during theTransfiguration of Jesus.InWestern Christianity,Elijah is commemorated as asaint with a feast day on 20 July by theRoman Catholic Church[171] and theLutheran Church–Missouri Synod.[172] Catholics believe that he was unmarried and celibate.[173] In theEastern Orthodox Church and thoseEastern Catholic Churches which follow theByzantine Rite, he is commemorated on the same date (in the 21st century,Julian Calendar 20 July corresponds toGregorian Calendar 2 August). He is greatly revered among the Orthodox as a model of thecontemplative life. He is also commemorated on theOrthodox liturgical calendar on the Sunday of the Holy Fathers (the Sunday before the Nativity of the Lord).
John the Baptist is also known asJohn the Forerunner in Christianity,John the Immerser in someBaptist Christian traditions,[174] He is considered to be aprophet ofGod by all of these faiths, and is honoured as asaint in manyChristian denominations. According to theNew Testament, John anticipated amessianic figure greater than himself,[175] and theGospels portray John as the precursor or forerunner of Jesus,[176] since John announces Jesus' coming and prepares the people for Jesus' ministry. Jesus himself identifies John as "Elijah who is to come",[177] which is a direct reference to theBook of Malachi (Malachi 4:5),[178] that has been confirmed by the angel who announced John's birth to his father,Zechariah.[179] According to theGospel of Luke, John and Jesus were relatives.[180][181]
Saint George was aChristian who is venerated as asaint in Christianity, and he was a soldier ofCappadocian Greek origin and member of thePraetorian Guard forRoman emperorDiocletian, who was sentenced to death for refusing to recant his Christian faith. He became one of the mostvenerated saints andmegalomartyrs inChristendom, and he has been especially venerated as amilitary saint since theCrusades. Inhagiography, as one of theFourteen Holy Helpers and one of the most prominent military saints, he is immortalized in the legend ofSaint George and the Dragon. His memorial,Saint George's Day, is traditionally celebrated on 23 April. England,Ethiopia, Georgia,Catalonia andAragon in Spain, Moscow in Russia, and several other states, regions, cities, universities, professions and organizations claim George as theirpatron. The bones of Saint George are buried in theChurch of Saint George, Lod, Israel.
Mary was a first-centuryJewish woman ofNazareth,[183] the wife ofJoseph and the mother ofJesus. She is a central figure ofChristianity, venerated undervarious titles such asvirgin orqueen, many of them mentioned in theLitany of Loreto. TheEastern andOriental Orthodox,Church of the East,Catholic,Anglican, andLutheran churches believe that Mary, as mother of Jesus, is theMother of God. OtherProtestant views on Mary vary, with some holding her to have lesser status.[184] Christian Marian perspectives include a great deal of diversity. While some Christians such as Catholics and Eastern Orthodox have well established Marian traditions, Protestants at large pay scant attention toMariological themes.[185] Catholic, Eastern Orthodox, Oriental Orthodox, Anglican, and Lutheransvenerate the Virgin Mary. This veneration especially takes the form ofprayer for intercession with her Son, Jesus Christ. Additionally, it includes composing poems and songs in Mary's honor, paintingicons or carving statues of her, andconferring titles on Mary that reflect her position among the saints.[186][187][188]
TheDruze faith holds the Virgin Mary, known asSayyida Maryam, in high regard.[26] Although the Druze religion is distinct from mainstreamIslam andChristianity, it incorporates elements from both and honors many of their figures, including the Virgin Mary.[26] The Druze revere Mary as a holy and pure figure, embodying virtue and piety.[145][26] She is respected not only for her role as the mother of Messiah Jesus but also for her spiritual purity and dedication to God.[145][26] In regions where Druze and Christians coexist, such as parts ofLebanon,Syria andIsrael, theveneration of Mary often reflects a blend of traditions.[189] Shared pilgrimage sites and mutual respect for places like theChurch of Saidet et Tallé inDeir el Qamar, theOur Lady of Lebanon shrine inHarrisa, theOur Lady of Saidnaya Monastery inSaidnaya, and theStella Maris Monastery inHaifa exemplify this.[189]
Historical records and writings by authors like Pierre-Marie Martin and Glenn Bowman show that Druze leaders and community members have historically shown deep reverence forMarian sites.[182] They often sought her intercession before battles or during times of need, demonstrating a cultural and spiritual integration of Marian veneration into their religious practices.[182]
In Lebanon, the Virgin Mary serves as a unifying figure among Druze, Muslims, and Christians, fostering a sense ofshared heritage and mutual respect.[189] Nour Fara Haddad, a scholar of religious anthropology, states that this unity is particularly important in maintaining thesocial and cultural bonds between these communities.[189]
InChristian tradition, theFour Evangelists areMatthew,Mark,Luke, andJohn, the authors attributed with the creation of the four canonicalGospel accounts. In theNew Testament, they bear the following titles: theGospel of Matthew; theGospel of Mark; theGospel of Luke; and theGospel of John. These names were assigned to the works by the early church fathers in the 2nd century AD; none of the writers signed their work.[190]
TheDruze tradition honors several "mentors" and "prophets", including Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John are honored as aprophets.[30] These Gospel writers are respected for their contributions to spiritual knowledge and guidance.[30] Druze doctrine teaches thatChristianity is to be "esteemed and praised", as theGospel writers are regarded as "carriers of wisdom".[19]
The number 5 holds special significance within the Druze faith, as it is believed that great prophets come in groups of five. Inancient Greek times, these prophets were represented byPythagoras,Plato,Aristotle,Parmenides, andEmpedocles. In the first century, the five were represented byJesus,[23][24]John the Baptist, Saint Matthew, Matthew, and Luke.[30] In the time of the faith's foundation, the five wereHamza ibn Ali ibn Ahmad, Muḥammad ibn Wahb al-Qurashī, Abū'l-Khayr Salama ibn Abd al-Wahhab al-Samurri, Ismāʿīl ibn Muḥammad at-Tamīmī, andAl-Muqtana Baha'uddin.
In theOld Testament,Jethro wasMoses' father-in-law, aKenite shepherd and priest ofMidian,[122] sometimes calledReuel (orRaguel).[191] InExodus, Moses' father-in-law is initially referred to as "Reuel" (Exodus 2:18) but afterwards as "Jethro" (Exodus 3:1). He was also identified as the father ofHobab in Numbers 10:29, though Judges 4:11 identifies himas Hobab.[192][193][194]
Muslim scholars and theDruze identify Jethro with the prophetShuayb, also said to come from Midian.[195][35] For the Druze, Shuayb is considered the most important prophet, and the ancestor of all Druze.[37][196] They believe he was a "hidden" and "true prophet" who communicated directly with God and then passed on that knowledge to Moses, whom they describe as a "recognised" and "revealed prophet".[197][198] According to Druze belief, Moses was allowed to wedZipporah, the daughter of Jethro, after helping save his daughters and their flock from competing herdsmen.[199]
Nabi Shuʿayb is the site recognized by Druze as the tomb of Shuʿayb. It is located atHittin in theLower Galilee and is the holiest shrine and most important pilgrimage site for the Druze.[200][201]
Some scholars suggest that early ChristianGnostic beliefs might have influenced Druze theology, particularly in concepts ofdivine knowledge andreincarnation.[4][21][22] Some suggest that the Druze practice of religious secrecy andasceticism may have been influenced by themonastic traditions of Christianity, particularlyEastern Christian monasticism prevalent in the Levant region.[120] These influences and incorporations of Christian elements encompass the adoption of the concept ofChristianizing al-Mahdi's persona among the Druze, as well as the integration of verses from theBible concerning the Messiah by certain Druze preachers.[152] Modern Western scholars such asde Sacy,van Vloten, andGoldziher have highlighted the Messianic tendencies and the influence ofChristian incarnation in the theology of early Druze founders as fundamental aspects of their doctrine.[202]
Scholar Rami İbrahim Mahmut fromIstanbul University argues thatearly Christian elements are clearly evident in the Druze faith. For instance, the concept of a Christian-Mahdi figure was adopted by the Druze, and someGospel citations originally referring to Jesus were applied to the Druze preacher Hamza ibn Ali.[152] These texts were used to claim that he is the Messiah to be obeyed byChristians. This belief also extends to al-Hakim, whom some Druze believe willreturn as Christ to initiate theresurrection. The Druzedeify al-Hākim bi-Amr Allāh, attributing to him divine qualities similar to those Christians attribute to Jesus.[152]
Some scholars believe Christian elements are deeply embedded in Druze beliefs, introduced throughIsma'ili traditions. This is evident in the Druze creed, which deifies al-Hākim bi Amrillāh.[152] The initiation text, "Mīthāq Walī al-Zamān" (Pact of Time Custodian), which begins with, "I rely on our Moula Al-Hakim the lonely God, the individual, the eternal,... Obedience of almighty Moulana Al-Hākim, exalted be him and that obedience is worship and that he does not have any partners ever, present or coming",[203] closely resembles Christian beliefs aboutJesus' divinity.[152] The Druze also view figures like Jesus, al-Hākim bi Amrillāh, and Hamza ibn Ali as the Messiah or Mahdi. They believe al-Hākim will return at the end of times to judge the world and establish his kingdom, while Hamza ibn Ali is considered a reincarnation of Jesus, the Universal Mind'Aql, closely associated with al-Hākim.[152]
Druze doctrine regardsChristianity,Judaism, andIslam as preceding religions that embody different manifestations of Druzism, which they consider superior to all. According to Druze beliefs, Adam and Jesus hold a unique status among prophets, sharing in divine essence. The Druze conception of Jesus ('Īsa ibn-Yūsuf) differs somewhat from the portrayal in the New Testament; he resembles theMuslim interpretation of Jesus as envisioned by the ancientDocetae sect, who believed that Christ suffered only in appearance.[204]
Christian influences are evident in the writings of the Druze missionaryBaha al-Din al-Muqtana (d. 1042). In a letter to EmperorConstantine of Byzantium, he cited passages from theGospel of John, such as, "His mother saith unto the servants, Whatsoever he saith unto you, do it", and "Jesus replied, this is the miracle I will do for you: Destroy this sanctuary and in three days I will raise it up".[152] Baha al-Din interpreted these "three days" symbolically, suggesting they represent thereturn of Christ, whom he identified asHamza ibn Ali. He attributed many aspects of Christ's role to Hamzah in Ali, including titles like theHoly Spirit and theSon of God, and claimed Hamzah ibn Ali as the one who sent the apostlesMatthew,Mark,Luke, andJohn.[152] Bahā'-al-Dīn confusesJohn the Evangelist withJohn the Baptist andJohn Chrysostom in his writings. Additionally, he employedparables that echoed themes found in the New Testament.[202]
Some scholars suggest that certain Druze religious practices were influenced byEastern Christian monastic traditions, particularly asceticism.[120] It is not uncommon for a sheikh to request celibacy from his fiancée, and many Druze sheikhs (ʻUqqāl) remain unmarried throughout their lives.[108] Other Christian influences can be seen in the Druze religion, such assexual attitudes that align more closely with Christianity than with Islam. The Druze rejection of polygamy, in contrast to traditional Islamic practices, underscores this alignment withChristian law.[107] According to the scholarFrancis Crawford Burkitt, in their family life, the Druze strictly observemonogamous marriages influenced by Christian norms, although divorce is readily accepted.[205]
The Druze strictly avoidiconography, but use five colors ("Five Limits"خمس حدودkhams ḥudūd) as a religious symbol:[206] green, red, yellow, blue, and white. The First limit (green), identified byIsmail at-Tamimi (d. 1030) in theEpistle of the Candle, represents either Hamza Ibn Ali or Jesus,[149] symbolizing the "Universal Mind/Intelligence/Nous".[149]
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TheEpistles of Wisdom orRasa'il al-Hikmah is a corpus of sacred texts andpastoralletters by teachers of theDruze Faith, the full Druze canon or Druze scripture includes theOld Testament, theNew Testament, theQuran and philosophical works byPlato and those influenced bySocrates among works from other religions andphilosophers.[59] Most of theEpistles of Wisdom are written in a post-classical language, often showing similarities toArab Christian authors.[208] The texts provide formidable insight into the incorporation of theUniversal Intellect and thesoul of the world in 11th century Egypt, when the deity showed itself to men throughFatimidCaliph al-Hakim and his doctrines. These display a notable form of Arabic Neoplatonism blended withIsmailism and adoptedChristian elements of great interest for the philosophy andhistory of religions.[22] The Epistles of Wisdom shows influence ofChristian monasticism, among other religious practices.[120]
A ChristianSyrian physician gave one of the first Druze manuscripts toLouis XIV in 1700, which is now kept in theBibliothèque Nationale. Local disturbances such as the invasion ofIbrahim Pasha between 1831 and 1838, along with the1860 Lebanon conflict caused some of these texts to fall into the hands of academics. Other original manuscripts are held in the Robert Garrett collection atPrinceton University.[209] The first French translation was published in 1838 by linguist and Catholic orientalistAntoine Isaac, Baron Silvestre de Sacy inExpose de la religion des Druzes.[210][211]
Antoine Isaac Silvestre de Sacy, a fervently Catholiclinguist andorientalist,[212] delved into theDruze religion. His final and incomplete work, was theExposé de la religion des Druzes (2 vols., 1838), focused on this subject.[213][214] TheVatican Library houses several Druze manuscripts, primarily volumes of theEpistles of Wisdom orRasa'il al-Hikmah,[215] in copies backing to the 10th and 11th centuries.[20][207]
TheEpistles of Wisdom present a unique perspective on religions and philosophies, includingChristianity andIslam, offering insights and interpretations that reflect the beliefs and teachings of the Druze faith.[22] These epistles delve into various aspects of Christianity, including the role of Jesus, theGospel writers, andChristian doctrine.[22] They also addressChristian scriptures and teachings from the perspective of Druze theology, highlighting points of convergence and divergence between the two faiths.[22] Overall, the Epistles of Wisdom provide offer an examination of religions and philosophies, including Christianity and Islam, from the viewpoint of Druze philosophy and spirituality.[216][22]
Christian-friendly content is present in Druze literature, such as the Epistles of Wisdom.[19] In epistles 53–55 of the third volume, it teaches that Christianity should be "esteemed and praised" by Druze believers, with thefour evangelists being described as "carriers of wisdom".[19][216] Another epistle mentions thatal-Hakim bi-Amr Allah will judge humanity onYom ed-Din, the "Last Judgment", which will occur after the overthrow of all kings, the prevalence ofChristianity overIslam, the destruction ofMecca by fire, and the rise of a vast army of reincarnated Druze individuals to rule the world.[19][20][216] According to this belief, only four religious communities will survive this judgment:Ahl al-Tawhīd [the Druze], Jews,Christians, and those who were once Muslims but have sinceabandoned Islam. Muslims will then serve the favored four communities, while faithful Druze believers will be appointed as leaders.[19][216] In his numerous epistles addressed to Christians, Bahā'-al-Dīn frequently refers to them as "saints" and "assemblies of saints".[202] His writings also show a remarkable familiarity with the New Testament andChristian liturgy.[202]
The third volume of theEpistles of Wisdom, known as "Part One", contains several epistles and discussions that offer insights into the Druze perspective onChristian beliefs and Christians.[22] These include:"The Epistle Addressed to Constantinople, Delivered toConstantinople, theRuler of Christianity": Authored byBaha al-Din al-Muqtana, this epistle was sent to the Emperor of theByzantine Empire, between 1028 and 1029. In this epistle, he invites theemperor and his people to embrace the Druze religion or thedivine call, In this epistle, he addresses the emperor and senior Christian clergy inByzantium with courtesy, referring to them assaints. He seeks to align Druze beliefs more closely with Christian beliefs, aiming to demonstrate that theParaclete, who announced the coming of the Messiah Jesus son ofMary, is the same as Hamza bin Ali.[216]"The Epistle Entitled Christianity and the Mother of Asceticism":Baha al-Din al-Muqtana directed this letter to all Christians, affirming thatHamza ibn Ali is thereincarnation of Jesus in the present era, and indeed, he is also the trueMessiah.[216]"The Epistle Tracking and Seeking the Opinions of What Remains of theChristian Law": Baha'u'llah addressed this epistle toPrince Michael, the son-in-law of the Emperor of theByzantine Empire. In this epistle, he interpretsGospel verses in alignment with thedeification ofal-Hakim bi-Amr Allah.[216][22] According to scholars, these epistles demonstrate familiarity withChristian theology andChristian literature.[217]
Epistles 13–14 of the first part of the Epistles of Wisdom focus onJesus, detailing hisministry, hiscrucifixion by the Jews, and his descent from the cross. According to these epistles,Hamza bin Ali took him down from the cross and allowed him to return tohis family, with the aim of preparing people to preach his religion.[145] The epistle titled "Excuses and Warnings" foretells that, as a sign of the end times, Messiah Jesus "the son ofJoseph and Mary", will appear inEgypt. The Jews will seize control ofJerusalem and seek revenge on the inhabitants of both Jerusalem andAcre. Subsequently, Messiah Jesus will expel the Jews from Jerusalem, and Christians will dominate Muslims until theDay of Judgment, when the divine Al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah returns to judge humanity.[216]
The author of the epistle "The Report of the Jewish and Christians" (Khabar al-Yahud wal Nasara), part of first volume of the Epistles of Wisdom, appears to have been a Druze individual. The account itself identifies him asHamza ibn Ali, a supporter ofal-Hakim'sdivinity and the founder of the Druze faith.[218] Hamza ibn Ali reportedly died after al-Hakim's disappearance in 1021. In the 18th century, the OrientalistJean Michel de Venture de Paradis mentioned obtaining a manuscript discovered in a Druze village. This manuscript contained, among other things, a description of a dialogue between al-Hakim and leaders of the Christian and Jewish communities.[218] Additionally, it included eight letters written by al-Hakim's lieutenant, Hamza ibn Ali, with the final one titled "The Report of the Jewish and Christians". These details raise the possibility that the work was authored by a supporter of al-Hakim. However, without further investigation, the matter remains unsettled.[218] "The Report of the Jewish and Christians" (Khabar al-Yahud wal Nasara) recounts how a delegation of Jewish and Christian representatives inCairo, led by their religious leaders, approached Caliphal-Hakim bi-Amr Allah during one of his habitual nocturnal walks to request safety due to his policy against Christians and Jews. This encounter led to a religious debate between them.[218] According to scholar, this meeting seems to be entirely fictional, created to support the idea that both Jews and Christians were expecting the coming of al-Hakim and Hamzah ibn Ali.[218]
Baha al-Din al-Muqtana is one of the founders of the Druze religion. Al-Muqtana's epistles comprise four of the six books of the Druze scripture, the Epistles of Wisdom. Al-Muqtana's life is largely unknown, apart from the information contained in his own writings.[217] His name was Abu al-Hasan Ali ibn Ahmad, and he was born in the village ofSammuqa, nearAleppo in northernSyria.[217][219] The familiarity withChristian theology andChristian literature exhibited in his writings suggests that he may have been originally a Christian.[217]
His numerous epistles show the extent of the Druze missionary network, which appears to have been present almost everywhere where the Fatimid-sponsored Isma'ilidaʿwa was also active: Cairo andUpper Egypt, Syria,Upper Mesopotamia andLower Mesopotamia,Persia, theYemen, and theHijaz.[217][220] He even sent letters to the ruler ofMultan, theByzantine emperorsConstantine VII andMichael IV the Paphlagonian, Jewish communities and Christian Church leaders, as well as the leader of theQarmatians ofBahrayn, either admonishing them for having abandoned the true faith, or exhorting them to repent and convert before the imminentend times.[220]
Throughout history, the remarkable aspect of the Druze is their ability to preserve their land and unique identity amidst the geopolitical turbulence. Despite the upheavals, they have not only survived but also coexisted alongsideSunni andShiite Muslims,Christians, and Jews, maintaining their cultural heritage amidst diverse neighbors.[221] In its emergence and evolution from Muslim soil, Druze doctrine maintained a significant relationship with Christianity, drawing from its historic connections with Christianity andOriental Christian sects.[222] Additionally, Druze belief inherited aspects from variousIsma'ili,Zoroastrian andJudaeo-Christian sects, along with incorporating teachings fromIslamic,Hellenistic, andPersian philosophies.[222] These findings are consistent with the Druzeoral tradition that claims that the adherents of the faith came from diverse ancestral lineages stretching back tens of thousands of years.[223] TheShroud of Turin analysis shows significant traces of mitochondrial DNA unique to the Druze community.[224]
Historically the relationship between the Druze and Christians has been characterized byharmony andcoexistence,[5][6][7][1] with amicable relations between the two groups prevailing throughout history, marked by shared economic activities, cultural exchange, and even political alliances in some cases, with the exception of some periods, including1860 Mount Lebanon civil war.[8][225]
According to scholar Pinḥas Artzi ofBar-Ilan University:
"Europeans who visited the area during this period related that the Druze "love the Christians more than the other believers", and that they "hate the Turks, the Muslims and the Arabs [Bedouin] with an intense hatred".[6]
Conversely, therelationship between the Druze and Muslims has been characterized by intense persecution.[226][227][228] Meanwhile, interactions between Jews and Druze were rare before theestablishment of Israel in 1948, as they historicallylived isolated from each other.[229][230]
The Druze faith extended to many areas in the Middle East, but most of the modern Druze can trace their origin to theWadi al-Taym inSouthern Lebanon, which is named after an Arab tribeTaym Allah (or Taym Allat) which, according to Islamic historianal-Tabari, first came from the Arabian Peninsula into the valley of theEuphrates where they had beenChristianized prior to their migration into Lebanon.[231]
Many of the Druze feudal families, whose genealogies have been preserved by the two modern Syrian chroniclers Haydar al-Shihabi andAhmad Faris al-Shidyaq, seem also to point in the direction of this origin. Arabian tribes emigrated via thePersian Gulf and stopped in Iraq on their route that would later to lead them to Syria. The first feudal Druze family, theTanukhids, which made for itself a name in fighting theCrusaders was, according to Haydar al-Shihabi, an Arab tribe fromMesopotamia where it occupied the position of a ruling family and apparently was Christianized.[232]
Until the Christian Crusaders arrived in theHoly Land in 1099, there is scant recordedhistory of the Druze. However, when they do emerge in accounts of theChristian occupation of the Levant, they are depicted as fierce warriors dedicated to repelling theCrusader armies.[221] In the 17th century, there was a prevailing belief in France that the Druze were descendants of a lost army ofEuropean Christiancrusaders. According to this notion, after the fall of the Christian stronghold ofAcre in 1291 and the subsequent persecution by the victoriousMamluks, these crusaders sought refuge in the mountains of Lebanon and settled there permanently.[221]
The only early Arab historian who mentions the Druze is the eleventh century Christian scholarYahya of Antioch, who clearly refers to the heretical group created byad-Darazī, rather than the followers ofHamza ibn 'Alī.[233]Yahya of Antioch was aMelkite Christian physician and historian of the 11th century.[234][235] He was most likely born inFatimidEgypt. He became a physician, but theanti-Christian policies of CaliphAl-Hakim bi-Amr Allah (r. 996–1021) forced him to flee toByzantine-heldAntioch.[236] The life ofHamza ibn Ali and his exact role in the birth of theDruze movement are not entirely clear, as the chief sources about him—the contemporary Christian chroniclerYahya of Antioch, the Muslim historianIbn Zafir, and Hamza's own epistles—are often contradictory.[237]
Wadi al-Taym is named after theArab tribe ofTaym Allat (later Taym-Allah) ibn Tha'laba.[238] The Taym-Allat entered theEuphrates Valley and adopted Christianity in thepre-Islamic period before ultimately embracing Islam after the 7th-centuryMuslim conquests. A small proportion of the tribe took up abode in the Wadi al-Taym at some point during the first centuries of Muslim rule.[238] TheTaym Allah, and the largely Christian, core tribes of the Lahazim in general, appear to have fought against the Muslim conquests of eastern Arabia in theRidda wars (632–633) and the lower Euphrates in modern Iraq afterward. They embracedMonophysite Christianity, like many Bakrites, before the advent of Islam in the 620s–630s.[231]
This valley became one of the first places where the heterodoxDruze faith, which branched out ofIsma'ili Shia Islam, took root in the 11th century.[239] The Wadi al-Taym was the first area where the Druze appeared in the historical record under the name "Druze".[238] According to many of the genealogical traditions of the Druze feudal families, the feudal Druze clans claimed descent from Arab tribes originally based ineastern Arabia and which entered Syria after periods of settlement in the Euphrates Valley.[238] According to the historian Nejla Abu-Izzedin, "ethnically", the "Wadi al-Taym has been authoritatively stated to be one of the most Arab regions of [geographical]Syria".[240] The area was one of the two most important centers of Druze missionary activity in the 11th century.[240] Wadi al-Taym is generally considered the "birthplace of theDruze faith".[241]
For much of the early 12th century, the Wadi al-Taym and the southernChouf were the territory of the Jandal, a Druze clan.[242] The leader of the clan, Dahhak ibn Jandal allied with theCrusaders of theKingdom of Jerusalem and engaged in a feud with theAssassins who ruled theBanias fortress in the western foothills ofMount Hermon just south of Wadi al-Taym.[242] Today, the population in the area being predominantlyDruze andSunni, with a high number ofChristians, mostlyGreek Orthodox.[243]
TheTanukhids were Christianised in the 3rd or 4th centuries, likely while in the eastern half of theFertile Crescent, and by the 4th century they were described as having a "fanatic zeal for Christianity" and were "zealous Christian soldiers" in the 6th century.[244] In the 7th century, during theMuslim conquest of the Levant, the Tanukhids fought with the Romans against the Muslims, including in theBattle of Yarmouk. After Yarmouk, their status as foederati ended.[245] They were described as an "autonomous Christian community inBilad al-Sham" up until the reign of theAbbasid caliphal-Mahdi (r. 775–785), after which they appear as Muslims. Their conversion to Islam is believed to have been forced upon them by al-Mahdi.[246][247] They are reported to have been devoted to Christianity,Thomas the Apostle[248] andmonasticism, with many monasteries associated with the tribe.[232]
Epistle 50, one of theEpistles of Wisdom composed byDruze missionaries in the early 11th century, was explicitly directed to three Tanukhid emirs settled in the mountainous Gharb area southeast of Beirut, calling on them to continue the tradition of their ancestors in spreading Druze teachings.[249] The Gharb was less rugged than the neighboring areas to the north and south, and its strategic value stemmed from its control of Beirut's southern harbor and the road connecting Beirut withDamascus.[250] The warrior peasants who inhabited the Gharb subscribed to the Druze faith, an esoteric offshoot ofIsma'ili Shia Islam, the religion of theFatimid caliphs ofEgypt.[251] Shahid holds that the Tanukh entered the Gharb asSunni Muslims and afterward became Druze.[252] Their leaders in the Gharb may have received and embraced the Fatimid Isma'ilida'wa (mission) as early as the late 10th century.[253]
In the 11th century, theTanukhids of Mount Lebanon inaugurated theDruze community in Lebanon, when most of them accepted and adopted the new message, due to their leadership's close ties with thenFatimid caliphal-Hakim bi-Amr Allah.[254] In the 14th century, the central parts of Mount Lebanon were described as a Tanukhid stronghold, housing both Druze and Shiite Muslims.[255] Members of the Tanukhids inMount Lebanon includeAl-Sayyid al-Tanukhi, a prominent 15th century Druze theologian and commentator; and Muhammad bin al-Muwaffaq al-Tanukhi, an emir andShiite Muslim who lived in the 13th century.[256]
The Kisrawan campaigns were a series ofMamluk military expeditions against the mountaineers of theKisrawan, as well as the neighboring areas ofByblos and the Jurd, inMount Lebanon. The offensives were launched in 1292, 1300 and 1305. The mountaineers wereShia Muslim,Alawite,Maronite andDruze tribesmen who historically acted autonomously of any central authority.[257] The Maronites in particular had maintained close cooperation with the lastCrusader state, theCounty of Tripoli.[258] After thefall of Tripoli to the Mamluks in 1289, the mountaineers would often block the coastal road between Tripoli andBeirut, prompting the first Mamluk expedition in 1292 under theviceroy of Egypt,Baydara.[259] During that campaign, the Mamluks, spread along the coastal road and cut off from each other at various points, were constantly harried by the mountaineers, who confiscated their weapons, horses and money. Baydara withdrew his men only after paying off the mountain chiefs. In modern Lebanese historical narratives, the Kisrawan campaigns have been a source of controversy by historians from different religious groups.[258] Maronite, Shia and Druze historians have each sought to emphasize the roles of their respective confessional group, over each other, in defending the autonomy of the Kisrawan from Mamluk outsiders. In writings bySunni Muslim authors, the Mamluks are portrayed as the legitimate Muslim state working to incorporate Mount Lebanon into the rest of theIslamic realm.[260] TheSunni Mamluk campaigns led to the destruction of many Christian churches and monasteries and Druze sanctuarieskhilwat, and caused mass destruction of Maronite and Druze villages and the killings and mass displacement of its inhabitants.[258]
In the 12th century Kisrawan had a tribal and religiously mixed population of Maronite Christians,Twelver Shia Muslims, Alawites and Druze.[257] Information about the Christians of the Kisrawan before the 12th century is scant, though in the 9th century there was evidently an organized Christian, likely Maronite, community governed by village headmen.[261] Under Muslim rule, Christians were mandated to pay thejizya, a form ofpoll tax, though its actual collection in Mount Lebanon was likely done on an inconsistent basis.[262] The Druze religion, which branched off ofIsma'ili Shia Islam in the early 11th century, and separated later from bothIsma'ilism andIslam altogether, gained adherents among people in Mount Lebanon and its environs, including much of theTanukh settlers in the hills east ofBeirut. Certain aspects of the faith, such astransmigration of souls between adherents andincarnation, were viewed asheretical orkufr (infidelity) and foreign by Sunni and Shia Muslims,[263] but contributed to solidarity among the Druze, who closed their religion to new converts in 1046 due to the threat of persecution.[264]
The historian Ahmed Beydoun describes the efforts by 20th-century Maronite authors to emphasize theMaronite role in the events as an attempt to prove the community's early presence in the Kisrawan. In this way, the Maronites' abandonment of the region in the aftermath of the campaigns could be described as a "forced exile" and the Maronite settlement of theKisrawan in the 16th and 17th centuries as their "return".[265] On the other hand, Beydoun views the narratives of the expeditions by modernShia Lebanese historians, which emphasize Shia Muslims' defense of the mountains' autonomy from the Mamluks, as part of an effort to bolster Shia credentials as a core Lebanese community.[266]Lebanese Sunni authors generally write of the campaigns from a pro-Mamluk stance, seeing in them the legitimate Muslim state's efforts to incorporate Mount Lebanon into the Islamic realm, while Druze authors write with a focus on the Druze community's consistent connection toMount Lebanon and defense of its practical autonomy.[267]
The Ottomans, through theMa'n dynasty, a greatDruzefeudal family, and theShihabs, a mixedSunni Muslim-Druze family that had converted to Christianity.[269]Ma'n dynasty were a family of Druze chiefs of Arab stock based in the rugged Chouf area of southern Mount Lebanon who were politically prominent in the 15th–17th centuries.Deir al-Qamar was the capital and the residence of theEmirate of Mount Lebanon. TheChurch of Saidet et Tallé is aMaronite church inDeir el Qamar in Lebanon, it is one of the most important historical and religious sites inDeir el Qamar and dates to the 16th century. The second church was destroyed by theSaracens and rebuilt during Fakhreddine 1st Maan's (1518–1544) reign.[268] In 1673, SheikhAbu Fares Karam of Ehden (EmirAhmad Ma'n's secretary) and his brother Sheikh Abu Nader enlarged the church and added a vault. During the reign ofBechir II Chehab (1789–1840) it was again enlarged and renovated.[268]
Fakhr-al-Din II (1572–1635) was a Druze prince and a leader of theMount Lebanon Emirate. For uniting modern Lebanon's constituent parts and communities, especially the Druze and theMaronites, under a single authority for the first time in history, he is generally regarded as the country's founder.[270] Christians prospered and played key roles under his rule, with his main enduring legacy being the symbiotic relationship he set in motion between Maronites and Druze, which proved foundational for the creation of a Lebanese entity.[271] Maronite Abū Nādir al-Khāzin was one of his foremost supporters and served as Fakhr-al-Din's adjutant. Phares notes that "The emirs prospered from the intellectual skills and trading talents of the Maronites, while the Christians gained political protection, autonomy and a local ally against the ever-present threat of direct Ottoman rule.[272] In mid-1609 Fakhr al-Din gave refuge to Maronite PatriarchYuhanna Makhlouf upon the latter's flight from northern Mount Lebanon.[273] In a 1610 letter from PopePaul V to Makhlouf,[274] the Pope entrusted Fakhr al-Din with the protection of the Maronite community.[275]
Under Fakhr al-Din's overlordship, Maronite,Greek Orthodox, andGreek Catholic Christians began migrating to the Druze Mountain in large numbers; the devastation wrought on the Druze peasantry during the punitive government campaigns of the 16th century had likely caused a deficit of Druze farm labor for the Druze landowners, which was partly filled by the Christian migrants.[277] Christians were settled in Druze villages by the Druze tribal chiefs in the days of Fakhr al-Din to stimulate agricultural production, centered on silk, and the chiefs donated land to the Maronite Church and monastic institutions to further facilitate Christian settlement.[277] Fakhr al-Din made the first such donation in 1609. Although the Druze chiefs owned much of the Chouf lands on which the silk crop was grown, Christians dominated every other aspect of the silk economy there, including production, financing, brokerage to the markets ofSidon andBeirut and its export to Europe.[278] Toward the close of the 16th century, theMedici grand dukes ofTuscany had become increasingly active in the eastern Mediterranean, pushed for a newcrusade in theHoly Land, and began patronizing the Maronite Christians of Mount Lebanon.[279] The Emir's religious tolerance endeared him to the Christians living under his rule.[280] Fakhr-al-Din II was the first ruler in modern Lebanon to open the doors of his country to foreignWestern influences. Under his auspices the French established a khān (hostel) in Sidon, theFlorentines a consulate, andChristian missionaries were admitted into the country. According to Duwayhi:
Under Emir Fakhr al-Din the Christians could raise their heads high. They built churches, rode horses with saddles, wore turbans of finemuslin and belts with precious inlays, and carried jeweled rifles. Missionaries from Europe came and established themselves in Mount Lebanon. This was because his troops were Christians, and his stewards and attendants Maronites.[281]
In Lebanese nationalist narratives,Fakhr-al-Din II is celebrated as establishing a sort ofDruzes–Maronitecondominium that is often portrayed as the embryo of Lebanese statehood and national identity.[282] Nationalist narratives by Lebanese Druze and Maronites agree on Fakhr al-Din's "decisive influence and contribution to Lebanon's history", according to the historian Yusri Hazran, though they differ significantly in determining the Emir's motives and the historic significance of his rule.[271] Druze authors describe him as the ideal ruler who strove to achieve strong domestic unity, build a prosperous economy, and politically free Lebanon from Ottoman oppression. Making the case that the Ma'nids worked toward Lebanon's integration into the Arab regional environment, the Druze authors generally de-emphasize his relations with Europe and portray his drive for autonomy as the first forerunning of theArab nationalist movement.[283] On the other hand, Maronite authors viewed the legacy of Fakhr al-Din as one of isolation from the Arab–Islamic milieu. Fakhr al-Din himself has been adopted by a number of Maronite nationalists as a member of the religious group, citing the refuge he may have taken with theKhazens in Keserwan during his adolescence, or claiming that he hadembraced Christianity at his deathbed.[270] According to the historian Christopher Stone, Fakhr al-Din was used by theRahbani brothers in theirLebanese nationalist play,The Days of Fakhr al-Din, as "a perfect historical predecessor for Lebanon's Christian nationalism of the twentieth century".[270]
TheShihab dynasty was an Arab family whose members served as the paramount tax farmers and local chiefs ofMount Lebanon from the early 18th to mid-19th century, duringOttoman rule. Their reign began in 1697 after the death of the lastMa'nid chief. In 1697, Amir Ahmad died without an heir, and the Druze notables chose his nephew Bashir al-Shihabi as their new ruler. He was succeeded in 1707 by the young Amir Haydar al-Shihabi, grandson of Amir Ahmad al-Ma'ni. Haydar recognized the authority of the Maroniteal-Khazins and the Hubayshis ofKisrawan andGhazir and treated these two families as equal to the feudalistic Druze families.[285] The Shihab family realized the importance of Maronite rule and power, and they and the Maronites became united in a common interest. The family centralized control over Mount Lebanon, destroying the feudal power of the mostlyDruze lords and cultivating the Maronite clergy as an alternative power base of the emirate. DuringYusuf Shihab's rule, many members of the Shihab family converted to Christianity and Yusuf also began to rely on the support of theMaronite Christians.[286]
On 3 September 1840,Bashir Shihab III, a distant cousin of the once-powerful EmirBashir Shihab II, was appointedemir ofMount Lebanon byOttoman SultanAbdulmejid I. Geographically, the Mount Lebanon Emirate corresponded with the central part of present-dayLebanon, which historically has had aChristian and Druze majority. In practice, the terms "Lebanon" and "Mount Lebanon" tended to be used interchangeably by historians until the formal establishment of the Mandate.Yusuf Shihab andBashir Shihab II were the onlyMaronite rulers of theEmirate of Mount Lebanon.[287] The Shihab family allied withMuhammad Ali ofEgypt during his occupation ofSyria, but was deposed in 1840 when the Egyptians were driven out by an Ottoman-European alliance, leading soon after to the dissolution of the Shihab emirate. Despite losing territorial control, the family remains influential in modernLebanon, with some members having reached high political office.[288]
TheKhazens opposed the creation of the "Double Qaimaqmate" in Mount Lebanon in the 1840s, which divided Mount Lebanon into Druze and Christian-run sectors, and were incensed at the appointment of a sheikh from the mixed Druze-Christian Abu'l-Lama family as theqaimaqam (deputy governor) of the Maronite section of the Qaimaqamate. The Khazens feared that such an appointment would formally subordinate them to the Abu'l-Lama sheikhs.[289] Several Khazen family members became destitute in the 1830s and 1840s and Khazen influence over theMaronite Church waned. To compensate for their economic, social and political stagnation, the Khazens increased their pressure on the peasants of Kisrawan in the late 1850s, while also spending extravagantly.[288]
The "Druze-Christian alliance" during this century was the major factor enabling theShehab dynasty to maintain power.[290] By the middle years of the eighteenth century, theShihabi amirs converted to Christianity,[291][292] so did several Druze amirs and prominent Druze clans,[293] like the originally Druze Abi-Lamma clan (a Druze family who was a close ally of the Shihabs) which also converted to Christianity and joined theMaronite Church.[294][295][296][297][298] After the Shehab dynasty converted to Christianity,[269] the Druze lost most of their political and feudal powers. Also, the Druze formed an alliance withBritain and allowedProtestant Christianmissionaries to enterMount Lebanon, creating tension between them and the native Maronite Church. Approximately 10,000 Christianswere killed by the Druze duringinter-communal violence in 1860.[299]During the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, Protestant missionaries established schools and churches in Druze strongholds, with some Druze converting toProtestant Christianity;[300][301] yet they did not succeed to convert Druze to Christianity en masse.
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TheDouble Qaim-Maqamate of Mount Lebanon (1843–1861) was one of the Ottoman Empire's subdivisions following the abolishment of theMount Lebanon Emirate.[302] After 1843, there existed an autonomous Mount Lebanon with a Christian and a Druze subdivision,[302] which have been created as ahomeland for theMaronite Christians under European diplomatic pressure following the 1841 massacres, and for the Druze segment of the population. After the collapse of the Double Qaim-Maqamate due to the1860 conflict, theMaronite Catholics and theDruze further developed the idea of an independentLebanon in the mid-nineteenth century, through the creation of theMount Lebanon Mutasarrifate.
The idea of dividing Mount Lebanon between Christians and Druze was a system proposed by the Austrian ChancellorMetternich between the British and the Ottomans, who backed the Druze demand for a Druze governor, and the French, who insisted on the return of theShihab principality. Thus, the Druze emir Ahmad Arslan was appointed qāʾim maqām of the mixed southern district and Christianemir Haydar Ahmad Abu al-Lamaʿ qāʾim maqām of the mostly Christian northern district, each qāʾim maqām was to be accompanied by twowakils, a Druze and a Christian, who exercised their judicial and fiscal authority over the members of their respective communities.[302]Emir Haydar Ahmad Abu al-Lamaʿwas a member of Abu'l-Lama clan, whichconverted to Christianity and joined theMaronite Church at the beginning of the eighteenth century.[294] The British, after their Protestant missionaries were unable to win a large audience of nativeLebanese Christians, supported and encouraged the Druze and supplied them with money and weapons, as did the French for the Maronites, with most of Britain and France's agents beingOrientalists who spent many years in the Levant.
The declaration of the Qāʾim Maqāmiyya triggered a wave of violence and further worsened the religious tensions, a series of overlapping and complicated conflicts dominated the years that followed its declaration, with Christian commoners (led byTanyus Shahin andYoussef Bey Karam) fighting against both Christian and Druzefeudal lords and families (Christian feudal lord families include:Khazen family, Abu'l-Lama family and theShihab family; Druzefeudal lord families include:Arslan family,Al Hamdans andJumblatt family), and bad weather controlling the region in 1856–1858, alongside a crisis insilk production which cut the production of the valuable product in Mount Lebanon to a half, led to several peasant's revolts that ultimately caused the climax of the tensions between the Druze and the Maronites. Subsequently, the Mount Lebanon conflict of 1860 began and led to the demise of the Double Qaim-maqamate.[303]
The1860 civil conflict in Mount Lebanon and Damascus (also called the1860 Syrian Civil War[304]) was a civil conflict inMount Lebanon duringOttoman rule in 1860–1861 fought mainly between the localDruze and Christians. Following decisive Druze victories and massacres against the Christians, the conflict spilled over into other parts ofOttoman Syria, particularlyDamascus, where thousands of Christian residents (10,0000) were killed by Muslim and Druze militiamen.[305] The fighting precipitated a French-led international military intervention.[305]
Bitter conflicts between Christians and Druzes, which had been simmering underIbrahim Pasha's rule (mostly centred on thefirmans of 1839 and, more decisively, of 1856, which equalised the status of Muslim and non-Muslim subjects, the former resenting their implied loss of superiority) resurfaced under the new emir (Bashir Shihab III).[306] The sultan deposed Bashir III on 13 January 1842 and appointedOmar Pasha as governor of Mount Lebanon. Representatives of the European powers proposed to the sultan that Mount Lebanon be partitioned into Christian and Druze sections. On 7 December 1842, the sultan adopted the proposal and asked the governor ofDamascus to divide the region into two districts: a northern district under a Christian deputy governor and a southern district under a Druze deputy governor. The arrangement came to be known as the "DoubleQaimaqamate". Both officials were to be responsible to the governor ofSidon, who resided inBeirut. The Beirut-Damascus highway was the dividing line between the two districts.[306][307]
While the Ottoman authorities pursued adivide-and-rule strategy, various European powers established alliances with the various religious groups in the region. TheFrench established an alliance with the Lebanese Christians, while the Druze formalized an alliance with theBritish, allowing them to sendProtestantmissionaries into the region.[306] The increasing tensions led to an outbreak of conflict between Christians and Druzes as early as May 1845. Consequently, the Europeangreat powers requested for the Ottoman sultan to establish order in Lebanon, and he attempted to do so by establishing a new council in each of the districts. Composed of members of the various religious communities, the councils were intended to assist the deputy governor.[306]
Economic and demographic factors also played a role in undermining the peaceful coexistence of the Druze and Christian in this period, theMaronite benefited from the advantages ofmodernising andexpanding economy, built with French assistance, disproportionately accrued to them.[308] Lebanese Christian wealth prospered because of connections with Europe.[308] Additionally, the maronite population had over the span of only a few decades dramatically overtaken that of the Druze. Numerically and commercially; Christians posed a threat to the traditional landlords Druze elite.[308] AsLebanese Christians formed the wealthy elite and theeducated class, they have had asignificant impact on the politics and culture of theArab World,[309] and they created a growing demand for Western-style education in law, medicine, science, engineering, and finance, and for the greater opportunities for wealth.[309]
After fierce fighting erupted between the Druze and Maronite populations in the Mount Lebanon region in 1860. France and otherWestern nations then pressured the Ottomans to set up a semiautonomous region known as a Mutasarrifate.[310] After 1861 there existed an autonomous Mount Lebanon with a Christianmutasarrıf, which had been created as a homeland for theMaronites under European diplomatic pressure following the1860 massacres. Historians link the Maronite ascendancy in the Mutasarrifate to their alliance with the French and their subsequent domination of thesilk trade, through the development of a Maronitebourgeoisie class.[311]
TheMaroniteCatholics and theDruze founded modernLebanon in the early eighteenth century, through the ruling and social system known as the "Maronite-Druze dualism" which developed in Ottoman-era Mount Lebanon Mutasarrifate,[14] creating one of the calmest atmospheres that Lebanon had ever lived in.[312] The working out of this dualism greatly affected the character of independent Lebanon later.[14] Upon the establishment of the Mutasarrifate system, the Christians and Druze groups entered in economic, political, and religious relations with Europeans rather than Ottomans.[312]
The ruling and social system in the Mount Lebanon Mutasarrifate was formed from the Maronite-Druze dualism, and the security stability and Druze-Maronite coexistence in the Mutasarrifate allowed the development of the economy and the system of government.[313] In 1870 manyChristian foreign schools were opened in Lebanon, which were among the main centers of therenaissance (Nahda) and this led to the establishment of schools, universities, theater and printing presses.[314][312][315] The remainder of the 19th century saw a relative period of stability, as Druze and Maronite groups focused on economic and cultural development which saw the founding of theAmerican University of Beirut (Syrian Protestant College) andSaint Joseph University and a flowering of literary and political activity associated with the attempts to liberalize the Ottoman Empire.[312]
Christians constituted the majority of the population of the Mutasarrifate of Mount Lebanon, and most of them belonged to theSyriac Maronite sect. The Maronites were concentrated in the region since they settled in northern Mount Lebanon, as for the rest of the districts, the Maronites mixed with other Christian sects and with the Druze, who formed the second largest sect in the mountain, and the majority of the residents of the Chouf and the Matnaqdiyah. There was also a noticeable presence of theGreek Orthodox in both parts of the mountain. As for theShiites and theSunnis, their presence was, and still is, very insignificant. As a result of this closeness and convergence, a number of Lebanese embraced the religion of their neighbors or their religious sect, and thealqāb became shared among Christians and Druze. Late in the century there was a short Druze uprising over the extremely harsh government and high taxation rates, but there was far less of the violence that had scalded the area earlier in the century. The total population in 1895 was estimated as 399,530, with 30,422 (7.8%) Muslims, 49,812 (12.5%) Druze and 319,296 (79.9%) Christians.[316]
The MaroniteCatholic and the Druze founded modernLebanon in the early eighteenth century, through the ruling and social system known as the "Maronite-Druze dualism" inMount Lebanon Mutasarrifate.[14] Contact between Christians (members of the Maronite,Eastern Orthodox,Melkite, and other churches) and the Unitarian Druze led to the presence of mixed villages and towns inMount Lebanon,Chouf,[1]Wadi al-Taym,[15]Jabal al-Druze,[16] theGalilee region,Mount Carmel, andGolan Heights.[317] They both speak the Arabic language and follow a social patterns similar to those of other peoples in theLevant (Eastern Mediterranean).[318] Scholars classifyAntiochian Greek Christians, Druze, and Maronites asethnoreligious groups.[319]
The relationship between the Druze and Christians in Syria, Lebanon and Israel has been characterized byharmony and peacefulcoexistence.[5] Historically, they lived in theChuf Mountains in complete harmony.[5] On a social level, Druze and Christians have often interacted in daily life, sharing neighborhoods, schools, and workplaces. Druze and Christians in these regions celebrate each other's births, weddings, funerals, and celebrations such as Christmas,Maundy Thursday (in Lebanon), Easter and the Christian festival ofSaint Elias (inMount Carmel).[320][321]
Before 2011, more than 55,000 Christians lived inAs-Suwayda Governorate, the only governorate in Syria with a Druze majority.[322] In 2010, more than 52,000 registered Christian voters,[323] primarilyMaronites andGreek Orthodox, lived in theAley District, where Druze constitute the majority.[324] In 2010 more than 8,000 Christians, mainlyMelkite, Eastern Orthodox members of theGreek Orthodox Church of Jerusalem, andMaronites, lived inDruze-majority towns and cities in Israel.[317]
_Christelijke_en_druzische_geestelijken_als_toesc%2c_Bestanddeelnr_255-4654.jpg)
Druze constitute one third of the residents ofRachaya District, and more than a quarter of the residents ofChouf District, which is considered the heartland of theLebanese Druze community, as well as in theMatn District. They also constitute a significant minority inMarjeyoun District. On the other hand, Christians constitute approximately 40% of the population inChouf District, and about a quarter of the populations inRashaya District, while comprising a majority inMatn District andMarjeyoun District.[324]Baabda District andHasbaya District are predominantly inhabited by Christians and Druze populations.
In 2021 the largest Druze communities outside the Middle East are inVenezuela (60,000) and in the United States (50,000);[325] both are predominantly Christian countries. Members of the Druze faith in the United States encounter challenges such as finding a Druze partner and adhering toendogamy, as marriage outside the Druze faith is strongly discouraged according to Druze doctrine. Additionally, they face the task of preserving their religious traditions, because many Druze immigrants to the United States have converted toProtestantism, joining primarily thePresbyterian orMethodist churches.[326][327]
The early Druze migrants toVenezuela integrated well with the local population, and some Druze converted toCatholicism.[328] However, the majority maintained a strong sense of Druze andArab identity and adhered to Druze values. A notable example of Druze influence in this predominantly Catholic country is the former vice president,Tareck El Aissami, who is of Druze descent.[329]
In Syria, most Druze reside in theAs-Suwayda Governorate, which encompasses almost all ofJabal al-Druze. This governorate is unique in Syria as it has a Druze majority. Additionally, it has integrated Christian communities that have long coexisted harmoniously with the Druze in these mountain.[17] In the 1980s Druze made up 87.6% of the population, Christians (mostlyGreek Orthodox) 11% and Sunni Muslims 2%.[330] In 2010, the As-Suwayda governorate has a population of about 375,000 inhabitants,Druze made up 90%,Christians 7% and Sunni Muslims 3%.[16] Due to low birth and highemigration rates, Christians proportion in As-Suwayda had declined.[16] TheDruze form a majority in the JabalHauran,[331] which is part of theal-Suwayda Governorate.[332] There is a significantChristian population, bothGreek Orthodox andGreek Catholic (Melkite), in the Hauran region as a whole, though most Christians are concentrated in the towns and villages straddling the western foothills of Jabal Hauran.[331][note 1]
Most of the Christians of Jabal Hauran are descents of theGhassanids (Arab tribe).[331] A major component of theAzd tribal confederation, theGhassanids established themselves inArabia Province and like the Salihids, embraced Christianity.[336] The Byzantine era in the Hauran was marked by the dual processes of rapidArabization and the growth of Christianity.[331] According to the historian Kamal al-Shofani "Christians inhabited the region before the Druze, and some of them came to Jabal al-Druze (Mountain of the Druze) at the end of the 17th century, fleeing Ottoman oppression".[322] In addition to the Bedouin, the 18th and 19th centuries also witnessed large migrations ofDruze fromMount Lebanon to the Jabal Hauran, which gradually became known as theJabal al-Druze ('mountain of the Druze').[331] Persistent migrations of Druze from Mount Lebanon,Wadi al-Taym and theGalilee, caused by the increased turbulence they faced, continued throughout the 18th century: historian Kais Firro stated that "each sign of danger in their traditional lands of settlement seemed to instigate a new Druze migration to the Hauran".[337] During the final years of the decade-longEgyptian administration of Syria, the Druze of Jabal Hauran launchedtheir first revolt against the authorities,[338] in response to a conscription order byIbrahim Pasha.[339] By then, their numbers in the region had been swollen by migration.[340] The1860 Mount Lebanon civil war between the Druze and Christians and the resulting French military intervention caused another large exodus of Druze to Jabal Hauran.[341]
The relationship between the Druze and Christians inAs-Suwayda Governorate has been marked by harmony and peaceful coexistence,[322][17] Before 2011, more than 55,000 Christians, primarily Greek Orthodox members of theGreek Orthodox Church of Antioch,[342]Melkite,[343] andLatin Catholic, lived inAs-Suwayda Governorate,[322] where they had several ancient churches. Many of them are members of Christian Arab tribes affiliated with theGhassanids.[344] Outside of theAs-Suwayda Governorate, Christians and Druze coexist in several mixed villages and towns such asJaramana,Sahnaya, andJdeidat Artouz.[345]
Villages in theJabal al-Druze have many historical and ancient churches, most of them dedicated to saints favored by theArabs.[346] The architecture of the Byzantine era was influenced by the spread of Christianity and the consequent construction of churches and monasteries, the majority dating between the 4th century and early 6th century.[346]
Lebanese Christians and Druze became a genetic isolate in the predominantlyIslamic world.[347] The Druzite and Maronite community in Lebanon played an important role in the formation of the modern state of Lebanon.[14] Contact between Christians (members of the Maronite,Eastern Orthodox,Melkite, and other churches) and the Unitarian Druze led to the presence of mixed villages and towns inMount Lebanon (Aley District,Baabda District, andChouf District),Rashaya District,Hasbaya,Matn District, andMarjeyoun District.[324]
The relationship between the Druze and Christians in Lebanon has been characterized byharmony andcoexistence, and they lived in theShuf Mountains in the past in complete harmony.[5][7][1] Historian Ray Jabre Mouawad observes that there was religious symbiosis between the Druze and Christians inMount Lebanon during theOttoman period. Numerous cultural interactions took place in Mount Lebanon, resulting overlapped symbolism, veneration of commonsaints, and the use of common terminology to refer to God. Traces of these interactions can be found in the palaces and mausoleums of Druze lords, as well as in Maronite and Greek Orthodox churches.[348]
Druze and Christians in Lebanon engage in mutual celebrations, including births, weddings, funerals, and religious festivities such as Christmas,Maundy Thursday and Easter.[320] These traditions of sharing and celebration persisted both before and afterLebanese Civil War.[320]Thursday of the Dead is a feast day shared by Christians and Druze in theLebanon,[349] it falls sometime between theEaster Sundays of theCatholic andEastern Orthodox Christian traditions. It is a day on which the souls of the dead are honoured. Particularly popular among women in the region,[350] this occasion highlights the shared cultural heritage betweenArabChristians and Druze in Lebanon.[350] Additionally, thebaptism of children in accordance with Christian customs often took place within prominent Lebanese Druze families.[351] Common surnames among Lebanese Christians and Druze include Abi-Lamma, Assaf,Atrash, Awar, Ballout,Barakat, Daou, Dergham,Faour, Farraj, Ghannam,Halabi,Harb,Hatoum, Hilal, Ibrahim, Jaber, Kadamani, Kadi, Malaeb, Nammour,Safadi, Saker, Saleh, Serhal, Shaya, Timani, Yaghi, and others.[352]
Historically Druzes, by large, sent their children toProtestant schools and accepted an implicit orientation toward Britain.[353] Many of the first graduates of theSyrian Protestant College inBeirut, the forerunner of AUB, were Druze, who over generations maintain an affinity to AUB.[354] At theCatholic schools anduniversities (such asNotre Dame University–Louaize) in Lebanon, Christian and Druze students study and socialise together.[355] Moreover, many members of the Druze political and cultural elite received their education inChristian institutions. Notable Druze figures who studied at these institutions includeAbbas Halabi,Asad Al Faqih,Majid Arslan,Marwan Hamadeh,[356]Manal Abdel Samad,[357] andKamal Jumblatt, who attended the prestigiousCollège Saint Joseph – Antoura.[358]
Marriage outside the Druze faith is rare and is strongly discouraged, and Druze can face serious social consequences if he or she converts to another faith to marry a non-Druze. According to Simon Haddad ofNotre Dame University–Louaize "if a Druze marries a Christian or Muslim, they could both be ostracized and marginalized by their community, and this could have very serious consequences if the couple works in town".[355] While according toUnited Nations High Commissioner for Refugees report: "Conversely, a source contacted by the Research Directorate of Canada's Immigration and Refugee Board in September 1998 advised that "there would be no problem for a mixed Druze/Orthodox Christian couple to live a normal life in Lebanon today"".[355] Prominent examples of mixed Christian-Druze marriages in Lebanon include: JournalistGhassan Tueni (Greek Orthodox) andNadia Mohammad Ali Hamade (Druze),[359] singerYuri Mraqqadi (Christian) and Olfat Munther (Druze),[360] Dalia Jumblatt, the daughter of the Lebanese Druze politicianWalid Jumblatt, who is currently married to Joey Pierre El Daher, son ofPierre El Daher, a Maronite Christian.[361]
Before and during theLebanese Civil War (1975–1990), the Druze were in favor ofPan-Arabism,Arab nationalism andPalestinian resistance represented by thePLO. Many of the community supported theProgressive Socialist Party formed by their leaderKamal Jumblatt and they fought alongside other leftist and Palestinian parties against theLebanese Front that was mainly constituted of Christians. At the time, the Lebanese government and economy were running under the significant influence of elites within theMaronite Christian community (Maronite politics).[362][363] Christians mostly sided with theWestern world while Druze,pan-Arabists, and leftists mostly sided withSoviet-alignedArab countries.[364] In August 2001,Maronite CatholicPatriarch Nasrallah Boutros Sfeir toured the predominantly DruzeChouf region ofMount Lebanon and visitedMukhtara, the ancestral stronghold of Druze leader Walid Jumblatt. The tumultuous reception that Sfeir received not only signified a historic reconciliation betweenMaronites and Druze, who fought awar in 1983–1984, but underscored the fact that the banner of Lebanese sovereignty had broad multi-confessional appeal[365] and was a cornerstone for theCedar Revolution in 2005.
For historical and political reasons, social and economic conditions vary among Lebanon's sects. Christians inBeirut dominated the most lucrative financial and commercial sectors, while Muslims had a significant presence in lower value-added industrial sectors.[366] Muslims generally comprised the majority of the working class, while Christians predominated in the middle and upper classes (about 75%), also owning most small and medium-sized enterprises.[366] Researcher Gordon observed that in 1980, the financial income of Christians was approximately 16% higher than that of the Druze and about 58% higher than that of the Shiites.[366]
The relationship between the Druze and Christians in Israel has generally been marked byharmony and peacefulcoexistence,[367] with both communities living together in peace, harmony, and friendship.[320] However, there have been rare clashes, including instances of violence by the Druze against Christians, such as the incident in 2005 in the town oftown of Maghar.[317] Druze and Christians in Israel participate in each other's cultural events, including births, weddings, funerals, and celebrations like the Christian festival of Mar Ilyas (Saint Elias) inHaifa.[321] Additionally, many Druze students are enrolled in Christian schools across theGalilee and Haifa regions.[317] Some Druze towns are situated near significantChristian holy sites, with the most prominent being theCatholic Muhraqa Monastery located 2 kilometres southeast ofDaliyat al-Karmel, the largest Druze town in Israel, and marks the contest between prophetElijah and the priests ofBa'al. It belongs to theCarmelite Order.[368] In the predominantly Druze town ofHurfeish, there is the Church and House of SaintMariam Baouardy.[369]
Interaction between Christians, including members of the Maronite,Eastern Orthodox,Melkite, and other churches, and the Unitarian Druze has resulted in the establishment of mixed villages and towns in Galilee region,Mount Carmel, and theIsraeli-occupied portion of theGolan Heights.[317] These includeAbu Snan,Daliyat al-Karmel,Ein Qiniyye,Hurfeish,Isfiya,Kafr Yasif,Kisra-Sumei,Majdal Shams,Maghar,Peki'in,Rameh andShefa-Amr,[317] where more than 82,000 Druze and 30,000 Christians reside together.[317] Among these mixed communities, the largest Christian populations in Druze towns are found in Maghar, followed byIsfiya andPeki'in. Conversely, the largest Druze communities in predominantly Christian towns are located inRameh, followed byKafr Yasif.[317]
Before Israel's occupation, Christians accounted for 12% of the population of theGolan Heights, and they tended to have a high representation in science and in thewhite collar professions.[18] But a few Christians remain of a much larger community that left the area.[18] In 2010 more than 8,000 Christians lived in Druze-majority towns and cities in Israel, including Daliyat al-Karmel, Ein Qiniyye, Hurfeish, Isfiya, Kisra-Sumei, Majdal Shams, Maghar and Peki'in.[317] Additionally, in 2016, more than 2,700 Druze lived inRameh andKafr Yasif, which are Christian-majority towns located in theGalilee region, and more than 12,000 Christians and 9,800 Druze livedAbu Snan andShefa-Amr, which have a Muslim majority. Before 1948, some Druze towns such asBeitegen,Julis,Sajur andYarka were inhabited by small Christian communities.[317]
The relationship between Druze and Christians in the region, especially during Druze-Maronite conflicts in theLebanese Civil War (1975–1990), did not adversely affect the peaceful coexistence between Druze and Christians inGalilee.[371] Rare exceptions include incidents such as the one on April 11, 1981, when a soccer match between two neighboringArab towns escalated into violence.[371]Kafr Yasif, predominantly Christian, played againstJulis, predominantly Druze. A brawl among fans resulted in the deaths of a teenager from each town. Subsequently, residents of Julis retaliated with attacks on Kafr Yasif in the days following the match.[371] Anothersectarian incident occurred in 2005, when Druze attacked Christians inMaghar following rumors that someChristian youths had created and shared photo images ofDruze girls depicted as nude models on the internet. However, clashes between the two communities are rare.[372][373] Christian shops, vehicle, house and the church were vandalized.[372] The clashes forced around 2,000 of the Christians to flee their homes.[374] However, a police investigation revealed that aDruze youth had spread lies to his friends about the pictures, leading to the escalation of tensions.[375][376]Dan Ronen the commander of Northern District commander called the violence "apogrom".[375][373]
According to Jack Khoury, the clash inMaghar may stem from animosity between the wealthier Christian population and the poorer Druze.[374][372] Since in terms of their socio-economic situation,Arab Christians in Israel have high socio-economic status and are more akin to theJewish population in this regard than to theMuslim Arab orDruze population.[372] The local Druze community has complained that despite their sons serving in theIsraeli army and police forces, the government fails to reward the Druze community adequately. Meanwhile, Christian youth receive high-quality education, secure better jobs, leading to a noticeable disparity in living standards between the two groups.[377] Additionally,Arab Christians are among the most educated groups in Israel.[378][379] Statistically, Arab Christians in Israel have the highest rates ofeducational attainment among all religious communities.[380]
Many Druze and Muslims attend Christian schools in Israel,[317] because Christian schools are high-performing and among the best schools in the country, and while those schools represent only 4% of the Arab schooling sector, about 34% ofArab university students come from Christian schools,[381] and about 87% of theIsraeli Arabs in thehigh tech sector have been educated in Christian schools.[382][383] Moreover, a significant number of Druze students attend prestigiousChristian schools such as the Orthodox Arab College-School and the Sisters of Nazareth School inHaifa,Mar Elias Educational Institutions inI'billin, the Latin Patriarchate School in Rameh, Bishop Timothy National School in Kafr Yasif, and the Melkite Catholic Episcopal School and the Sisters of Nazareth School inShefa-Amr.[384]
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TheGolan Heights holds significance for Christians and has been a destination for pilgrims due to biblical accounts of Jesus's visitation. This includesConfession of Peter, which took place in the city ofBanias (Caesarea Philippi at the time).[385] Following theRoman Empire's recognition of Christianity, several churches and monasteries were built in the area, and numerous Christian archaeological sites remain in the Golan, such as theKursi andDeir Qeruh, and several ruins in Banias. Christians inhabited most villages and towns mixed with Druze in the Golan, such asJubata ez-Zeit, Zarura,'Ayn Fit,Haspin,Fiq,Quneitra,Ain al-Shaara,Hinah, andArnah,[386] in addition toMajdal Shams andEin Qiniyye, where Christians constituted two-thirds of the population in the 19th century. These Christians were divided into several denominations, includingGreek Orthodox,Maronites,Roman Catholics, andProtestants. Some Druze communities were established in the Golan during the 17th and 18th centuries.[387]
During theFrench Mandate period, there was a significantmigration of Christians from villages to the city ofQuneitra, forming the second largest population group there after theCircassians.Majdal Shams played a significant role in theGreat Syrian Revolt of 1925–1927. In October 1925, a few months afterSyrian Druze had begun fighting French forces in the nearby province ofJabal al-Duruz, a group of the town's Druze residents looted local Christian property.[388] Mandate authorities sent troops to restore order, and community leaders contacted the central command of the revolt for assistance defending the town against the French.[388]
Before the1967 war, Christians comprised 12% of the total population of the Golan, which reached 150,000 people.[389] While Druze formed the majority of the population.[389] Christians were involved in small-scale economic and commercial activities, classified within the petitebourgeoisie, and most were educated, with many working in professions such as medicine, law, and engineering, while the Druze mainly worked in agriculture and on the land.[388] The vast majority of Christians migrated with the rest of the population after Israel's occupation of the Golan, leaving only a few small Christian families.[390][391]
Of the four remaining Syrian Druze communities in theIsraeli-occupied territories (on Israel's side of Mount Hermon and the Golan Heights),Majdal Shams is the largest,[392] together withEin Qiniyye,Mas'ade, andBuq'ata. As of 2017, there was one Greek Orthodox Christian family of five (the Nasrallah family) inMajdal Shams, and one Christian family of twelve (the Assaf family) inEin Qiniyye.[18][390][391] Only one Maronite church remains in Ein Qiniyye, along with remnants of two Melkite churches in Ein Qiniyye and one Orthodox church in Majdal Shams.[18][390][391] The historic church of Banias remains closed despite restoration efforts. Relations between Christians and Druze inMajdal Shams andEin Qiniyye are characterized by goodwill, peaceful coexistence, and mixing.[389]
The Jordanian Druze people are estimated to number at least 20,000, as of 2005[update].[393] The main areas where they live areAmman,Azraq,Zarqa,Russiefa,Umm Al-Quttein,Aqaba andMafraq. Druze settlement in Jordan began in 1918, when 22 Druze families leftJabal al-Druze for al-Azraq following thewithdrawal of the Turks from the region.[394]
Jordan contains one of the oldest Christian communities in the world, their presence dating back to thecrucifixion of Jesus Christ early in the 1st century AD. Christians today make up about 3% of the population. Jordanian Christians in a country of almost 10 million are thought to number 250,000–400,000,[395] down from 20% in 1930, but their absolute numbers have increased.[396] This is due to high immigration rate of Muslims into Jordan, higher emigration rates of Christians and higherbirth rates for Muslims. Jordan'sArab Christians are exceptionally well integrated in the Jordanian society and enjoy a high level of freedom.[397] Christians are allotted a minimum of 7% of the seats in theJordanian parliament (9 out of 130 seats), significantly greater than their percentage of the total Jordanian population. They form a significant part of the kingdom's political and economic elite.[398]
In Amman, Zarqa, Russiefa, Umm Al-Quttein, Aqaba, and Mafraq there are Christian and Druze communities coexisting with theSunni Muslim majority. Many Druze and Muslims attendChristian schools in these areas, where students from Christian, Druze, and Muslim backgrounds study and socialize together.
Arab immigration to Venezuela started as early as the 19th and 20th centuries, with migrants primarily hailing from theOttoman provinces ofLebanon,Syria, andPalestine. They settled predominantly inCaracas, and have significantly influencedVenezuelan culture, particularly in terms ofArabic food and music. Religiously, theArab-Venezuelans community consists mainly of Druze and Christians, who are affiliated with theRoman Catholic,Eastern Orthodox andEastern Rite Catholic Churches.[399]
Venezuela hosts the largestDruze communities outside the Middle East,[400][401] estimated at around 60,000 individuals.[325] Most of them trace their ancestry back to Lebanon and Syria. More than 200,000 people from theAs-Suwayda area hold Venezuelan citizenship, the majority of whom belong to theSyria's Druze sect and immigrated to Venezuela in the past century.[402]
The early Druze migrants to Venezuela assimilated well into the local population, with some even convertingCatholicism.[328] Nevertheless, many retained a strong Druze andArab identity, along with adherence to Druze values. A prominent example of Druze influence in thisCatholic country is the former vice president,Tareck El Aissami, who is of Druze descent.[329][403] Other notable Venezuelan figures of Druze origin includeHaifa El Aissami andTarek William Saab.[404]
The Christian and Druze communities have a long history of interaction dating back roughly a millennium, particularly inMount Lebanon.[405] Over the centuries, they have peacefully interacted and lived together, sharing common social andcultural landscapes, although occasional exceptions have occurred. This interaction been marked by shared economic activities, cultural exchange, and even political alliances in some cases.[406] The two communities lived among each other and interacted socially on an everyday basis. The close bonds between Christian and Druze neighbors led to Christian communities thriving in some Druze towns.[406]
According to some scholars, historically, Druze communities had better relationships with Christians than with Muslims.[6][405] They also points out that Christians tended to show more tolerance towards the Druze community and their religion compared to Muslims.[405][407] Traditionally, Druze settlements in theLevant often included Christian families and communities, while Muslim presence was rare.[405]
The "Druze-Christian alliance" during theEmirate of Mount Lebanon, from the mid-16th to the early-19th century, and the "Maronite-Druze dualism" inMount Lebanon Mutasarrifate from the 19th to the 20th centuries, laid the foundation for what is now Lebanon.[14][408] This is celebrated as establishing a kind of Druze-Maronite condominium, often depicted as the precursor of Lebanese statehood andLebanese national identity.[14] While Lebanese nationalism appeals to theLebanese Maronite and Druze communities, it is generally unpopular amongLebanese Muslims, who often supportPan-Arabism andPan-Islamism, as well as amongGreek Orthodox Christians.[409]
Druze author Yusuf Khatat Abu Shaqra, in his bookMovements in Lebanon, stated: "In the past, there was no discord or estrangement between the Druze and Christians in Lebanon, as there has been since the year 1800. Instead, the two communities had affection for one another, were friendly, and, in other words, operated as one group, working together in harmony".[410]
Lebanese historianPhilip K. Hitti commented on the relationship between the Druze and Christians in Lebanon, noting: "Folty Comte, a French scholar, was astonished by the remarkable similarity between the Druze and theMaronites (Christians) in their way of life, system of governance,dialect, customs, and public morals. Druze and Maronite families coexist harmoniously, and sometimes Maronites accompany their Druze neighbors to church".[411][406]
According to Hitti, the Druze believe in the efficacy ofholy water blessed by a priest, and occasionally, if amissionary persists inevangelizing the Druze, they may accept the sacrament ofbaptism. Maretti, an Italian monk who visited the region in 1760, just before Folty's arrival, observed that the Druze show genuine affection and respect for Christians and their religion. He also noted that Druze pray inGreek Orthodox churches as they do in Turkish mosques.[412][406]
Historian Ray Jabre Mouawad observes that during theOttoman period, there existed religious symbiosis between the Druze and Christians inMount Lebanon. This period saw numerous cultural interactions, leading to shared symbols, the veneration of commonsaints, and the adoption of common terminology to refer to God. Evidence of these interactions can be found in the palaces and mausoleums of Druze leaders, as well as in Maronite and Greek Orthodox churches.[348]
According to scholar Pierre-Yves Beaurepaire, due to the Christian influence on the Druze faith, twoChristian saints become the Druze's favorite venerated figures:Saint George and the ProphetElijah.[125] Thus, in all the villages inhabited by the Druze and Christians in centralMount Lebanon, a Christian church or Druze maqam is dedicated to either the Prophet Elijah or Saint George.[125] The Druze environment influenced Christians living among them, and they started to use the same word for their churches, calling themmaqām instead ofkanīsah.[125]
Nour Fara Haddad, a scholar of religious anthropology, states thatChristian pilgrimage sites associated with revered figures among Christians, Druze, and Muslims—such as shrines dedicated to theVirgin Mary,Saint George, or theProphet Elijah—served as pilgrimage destinations for Christians, Muslims, and Druze alike. Even during conflicts, such as thecivil conflict in 1860, these Christianshrines remained places where people from different religious backgrounds could meet and interact.[189]
TheChurch of Saidet et Tallé inDeir el Qamar is one of the most significant historical and religious sites in Mount Lebanon. The original church was destroyed by theSaracens and later rebuilt during the reign of Fakhreddine I Maan (1518-1544).[182] For centuries, this church has been revered by both Druze and Christians in Mount Lebanon, reflecting the close ties between the two communities.[182] According to Pierre-Marie Martin, writing in 1870, the Druze venerated the church even more than theMaronites, often traveling long distances to pray to theVirgin Mary in their own way and "witnessing numerous miracles".[182] Historian Glenn Bowman further highlights that in the early nineteenth century, Druze leaders would seek the Virgin Mary's favor atSaidet et Tallé before going into battle. They would touch the image of theVirgin Mary with their flags and place dust from under the altar in their turbans. The profound veneration of this church by the Druze led local Maronites to dub it the "Church of the Virgin of the Druze".[182][413]
Since the sixteenth century, prominent Druze feudal families have welcomed Protestant missionaries, as well as,Catholic missionaries likeFranciscans,Jesuits,Carmelites, andLazarites to the region, all of whom contributed to the spread of education and literacy. Several feudal Druze families also funded the construction of churches in their strongholds. For example, theJumblatt family sponsored the building of the Maronite Church of Our Lady of Durra inMukhtara, and theArslan family supported construction of the Saint Michael the Archangel Orthodox Church inChoueifat.[414] Educated generations of Maronite commoners took up positions as scribes, clerks, physicians, and household agents in the service of notables, including both Maronite and Druze feudal families, such as the Jumblatt family.[415]
According to expertFabrice Balanche, during the 18th and 19th centuries, there were significant migrations of Druze from Mount Lebanon to JabalHauran, which eventually became known asJabal al-Druze ('mountain of the Druze'). The region also had sizable integrated Christian communities that had coexisted with the Druze for centuries, living in harmony with them.[17]
Historian Kais Firro asserts that inHauran, during the 18th and 19th centuries, Christians welcomed the arrival of new Druze immigrants as allies in repelling invasions by Bedouin clans.[416] He also observes that prior toSyrian independence, Christian villages in Hauran enjoyed protection from Druze clans, such asAl-Hamdan andAl-Atrash, shielding them from frequent attacks byBedouins from neighboring regions.[416]
Frederick J. Bliss notes that, to avoidTurkish military service, some Druze claimed to beProtestants. A French officer stationed inHouran confirmed that ifaristocratic Druze families lost a child, they would baptize the next-born child. The second son ofSultan al-Atrash was baptized in 1924. These practices reflectpiety, and it's not uncommon for a Druze living in a predominantly Christian villages to contribute financially to the local church.[406]
ManyArmenians who escapedAnatolia during theArmenian genocide sought refuge in Houran and Jabal al-Druze, where they received additional support from the Druze community. The Druze of Houran and Jabal al-Druze provided shelter and defense toArmenian refugees.[417] According to survivor testimonies, during theArab Revolt and the Armenian genocide,Sultan al-Atrash was involved in rescuing Armenian refugees.[418]
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Before theestablishment of the State of Israel in 1948, the Druze lived in theGalilee andMount Carmel, either in exclusively Druze villages or in villages mixed with Christians, where they had coexisted for centuries. Historically, the relationship between the Druze and their Christian neighbors was better compared to their relationship with their Muslim neighbors in neighboring villages.[419] According to historianIlan Pappé, during the1948 Arab–Israeli War, in villages partly inhabited by Druze, Christians were generally exempt from expulsion.[420]
According toPappé, in 1948, Israeli military rulers gathered Christians in the centers of several villages in the Galilee region, planning to deport them. However, Druze village leaders intervened, insisting that all Christians remain in their homes.[420] They utilized all their influence and resources to ensure that the Christian residents could stay.[420] The Galilean village ofRameh, with a Christian majority, was not displaced because of its large Druze population.[421] While the "divide and rule" policy succeeded with the Druze, who were promised immunity, weapons, and privileges, by the Zionist militias, thePalestinian Christian communities were less "cooperative".[421]
Israeli Druze and Muslims have comparable socio-economic standards when compared to their wealthier and more educatedIsraeli Christian counterparts.[422] Despite rare exceptions of sectarian incidents between the more privileged Christian community and the Druze, scholar Ibtisam Ibrahim's research reveals that most Druze interviewees view their relationship with the Christian community more positively than with the Muslim community.[423] Ibrahim also observes that, unlike other Israeli Christians and Muslims, Druze place less emphasis on theirArab identity and identify more asIsraeli.[423] However, they are less inclined to form personal relationships with Jews compared toIsraeli Muslims and Christians, a trend Ibrahim attributes to cultural differences between Jews and Druze.[423]
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The relationship between the Druze and theHoly See dates back to theCrusades.[424] In the 15th century, the Holy See sought to extend its relations with various non-Catholic communities in theOrient, in particular, the Druze.[425] As early as 1441,Papal delegate Antoine de Troya led a joint Maronite-Druze delegation toRome.[426] In a 1610 letter, PopePaul V entrustedFakhr al-Din II with the protection of the Maronite community.[275] Fakhr al-Din II, a prominent Druze leader of the early 17th century, spent a period of exile inLivorno, Italy. He stayed in the apartment of the late late PopeLeo X in thePalazzo Vecchio during his visits toFlorence.[427] In 1761, PopeBenedict XIV sent a letter of gratitude to Ali Jumblatt for facilitating the work of Roman Catholicreligious orders in Mount Lebanon and the Chouf. In 1791, PopePius VI sent a letter toBashir Jumblatt, expressing gratitude for allowing the Maronites to build more churches in theChouf area.[425] However, during periods of civil war when the Druze and Christians (mostly Maronites) clashed, theVatican expressed its displeasure with Druze leaders and naturally aided Christian groups.[425]
Today, relations between theHoly See and Druze religious institutions are positive, characterized by meetings andinterfaith dialogues.[425] This relationship is also reflected in theEastern Catholic Churches, such as theMaronite Church and theMelkite Catholic Church, whose followers have coexisted with the Druze for centuries.[425] During visits to the Middle East by PopeJohn Paul II, PopeBenedict XVI, andPope Francis, they met with Druze religious leaders alongside leaders of other faiths.[425] TheVatican Library houses several Druze manuscripts, mainly volumes of theEpistles of Wisdom (Rasa'il al-Hikmah), dating back to the 10th and 11th centuries.[215]
In modern times, Druze religious and political delegations have made visits to theVatican City.[425]Mowafaq Tarif, the spiritual leader of theDruze in Israel, attended the funerals ofPope John Paul II in 2005 andPope Benedict XVI in 2023, representing the Druze community. In 2022,Mowafaq Tarif visited the Vatican City and met with Pope Francis. During this meeting, both leaders emphasized the importance of religious coexistence between Christians and Druze. They also stressed the need for religious organizations active in Syria and Lebanon to provide and intensify humanitarian aid to all populations and regions, including Druze areas.
Conversion of Druze to Christianity used to be common practice in theLevant region.[355] Over the centuries, a number prominent Druze embraced Christianity, such as some ofShihab dynasty members,[11] as well as the Abi-Lamma clan.[12] Since emirBashir III was among theShehab princes who converted to Christianity at an earlier time,[428] the Druze considered him anapostate, a traitor to the Druze community in particular. The Abu'l-Lama family andclan, originally ofTanukh descent, ruled over Lebanon'sMetn region during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. Initially adherents of theDruze faith, the Abu'l-Lama sheikhs and clan members laterconverted to Christianity and joined theMaronite Church at the beginning of the eighteenth century.[294][295][296] The clan constructed numerous palaces and structures, many of which still stand today in the Metn region andMount Lebanon. After converting to Christianity, many of Abu'l-Lama clan members assumed the position ofqaimmaqam of theChristians in Lebanon during the Ottoman period. Among them was emir Haydar Ahmad Abu al-Lamaʿ, who served as the qāʾim maqām of the largely Christian northern district.[302]
During the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, Protestantmissionaries establishedschools and churches in Druze strongholds, with some Druze converting toProtestant Christianity;[300] yet they did not succeed to convert Druze to Christianity en masse. On the other hand, many Druze immigrants to the United States converted to Protestantism, becoming communicants of thePresbyterian orMethodist Churches.[326][327] There are also a few thousand Druze immigrants from Lebanon in the United States of America, who have converted to Christianity.[19] In the period ofEgyptian rule in the Levant in the 1830s, many Druze converted to Christianity to avoid enlistment into the Egyptian army.[351] Thebaptism of children in accordance with Christian custom was usual in large, well-known Lebanese Druze families,[351] according to historian Aharon Layish there is also explicit evidence of Druzes inLebanon under the Ottoman rule were posing Christians for practical reasons.[351] The early Druze migrants fromLevant toVenezuela tended to mix well with the local population, and some Druze converted toCatholicism.[328]
By one estimate made by Elisabe Granli fromUniversity of Oslo, around 1,920Syrian Druzeconverted to Christianity;[429] according to the same study, Christians with a Druze background (Druze converts to Christianity) still regard themselves asDruze,[429] and claim that there is no contradiction between being Druze and beingChristian.[429] According to the Druze religious courts, between 1952 and 2009, around 10% ofIsraeli Druze who left the Druze faithconverted to Christianity.[430]
According toOpen Doors, there is a small but growing community of Druze converts to Christianity in Syria and Lebanon, with most converting toEvangelicalProtestantism.[431] These converts have established churches specifically for Christians of Druze background, primarily comprising women, girls, and young men who have abandoned the Druze religion they were raised in.[432][433] These churches provide a space for worship and community support for those who have left the Druze faith.
Prominent converts from the Druze faith to Christianity include:Mohamed Alí Seineldín,[434]Nada Nadim Prouty,[435]Selwa Carmen Showker "Lucky" Roosevelt,[436] and others.
The Druze faith extended to many areas in the Middle East, but most of the modern Druze can trace their origin to theWadi al-Taym inSouthern Lebanon,[239] which is named after an Arab tribeTaym Allah (or Taym Allat) which, according to Islamic historianal-Tabari, first came from the Arabian Peninsula into the valley of theEuphrates where they had beenChristianized, and embracedMonophysite Christianity, prior to their migration into Lebanon.[231] Many of the Druze feudal families, whose genealogies have been preserved by the two modern Syrian chroniclers Haydar al-Shihabi andAhmad Faris al-Shidyaq, seem also to point in the direction of this origin. Arabian tribes emigrated via thePersian Gulf and stopped in Iraq on their route that would later to lead them to Syria. The first feudal Druze family, theTanukhids, which made for itself a name in fighting theCrusaders was, according to Haydar al-Shihabi, an Arab tribe fromMesopotamia where it occupied the position of a ruling family and apparently was Christianized before they subscribed to the Druze religion.[437]
Since closing of theunitarian call, the Druze do not accept converts to their faith. In 1043,Baha al-Din al-Muqtana; one of the main leaders of the Druze religion, declared that the sect would no longer accept new adherents, and since that time, proselytism has been prohibited,[116] awaitingal-Hakim's return onJudgement day to usher in a newgolden age.[438][439] Al-Muqtana's epistles comprise four of the six books of the Druze scripture, theEpistles of Wisdom.[440] This marked the end of the Druze "divine call", i.e., its active missionary phase. Since then, the Druze have been a closed community, in which neither conversion norapostasy is allowed.[440] Marriage outside the Druze faith is forbidden and is strongly discouraged,[441] and if a Druze marries a non-Druze, the Druze could be ostracized and marginalized by their community. Because a non-Druze partner cannot convert to Druze faith, a couple consisting of a Druze and non-Druze partner cannot have Druze children; the religion can only be passed onto a child born to two Druze parents.[117]
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the Druzes and the Christians in the Shuf Mountains in the past lived in complete harmony..
the Druze had been able to live in harmony with the Christian
.. Europeans who visited the area during this period related that the Druze "love the Christians more than the other believers," and that they "hate the Turks, the Muslims and the Arabs [Bedouin] with an intense hatred.
..the Druzes and Christians lived together in the most perfect harmony and good-will..
the conversion to Christianity of several Muslim and Druze families aided this growth immeasurably
So did other amirs, like the originally Druze Abi-llamah family, which also became Maronite
the Maronites and the Druze, who founded Lebanon in the early eighteenth century.
...comprised 50,328 inhabitants, of whom 85 per cent were Druze, and it integrated Christian communities (7,000 people) who had long lived in these mountains in harmony with the Druze.
Druze religious beliefs developed out of Isma'ill teachings. Various Jewish, Christian, Gnostic, Neoplatonic, and Iranian elements, however, are combined under a doctrine of strict monotheism.
{{cite book}}:ISBN / Date incompatibility (help)Jesus is known in the Druze tradition as the "True Messiah" (al-Masih al-Haq), for he delivered what Druzes view as the true message. He is also referred to as the "Messiah of the Nations" (Masih al-Umam) because he was sent to the world as "Masih of Sins" because he is the one who forgives.
They included Jesus, John the Baptist, Moses, and Mohammed—all teachers of monotheism
They also cover the lives and teachings of some biblical personages, such as Job, Jethro, Jesus, John, Luke, and others
Most Druze do not consider themselves Muslim. Historically they faced much persecution and keep their religious beliefs secrets.
Theologically, one would have to conclude that the Druze are not Muslims. They do not accept the five pillars of Islam. In place of these principles the Druze have instituted the seven precepts noted above..
The worldwide population of Druze is put at up to one million, with most living in mountainous regions in Syria, Lebanon, Jordan and Israel.
The Druze are an ethnoreligious group concentrated in Syria, Lebanon, and Israel with around one million adherents worldwide. The Druze follow a millenarian offshoot of Isma'ili Shi'ism. Followers emphasize Abrahamic monotheism but consider the religion as separate from Islam.
[Druze] although today it is widely considered to be a separate religion, some still consider it an Islamic sect
Druze who survive as a small minority in Syria, Lebanon, Israel, and Jordan (their estimated number in these countries totaled around one million in the beginning of the 21st century) diverge substantially from Islam, both Sunni and Shīʿa.
Most Druze do not consider themselves Muslim. Historically they faced much persecution and keep their religious beliefs secrets.
While they appear parallel to those of normative Islam, in the Druze religion they are different in meaning and interpretation. The religion is considered distinct from the Ismaili as well as from other Muslims belief and practice... Most Druze consider themselves fully assimilated in American society and do not necessarily identify as Muslims..
the Druze connection to the Muslims remained a matter of controversy.
Though their religion is related to that of the Ismailis from a historical standpoint, the Druze—who see themselves as true "unitarians" (muwah.h.idūn)—are usually not considered Muslims.
since Elijah was central to Druzism, one may safely argue that the settlement of Druzes on Mount Carmel had partly to do with Elijahʼs story and devotion. Druzes, like some Christians, believe that Elijah came back as John the Baptist
transmigration of the soul is a Druze tenet, and Druze believe that El Khidr and John the Baptist are one and the same. (Gibbs, 2008) The mythology of Khizr is thought to go back even further than the time of John the Baptist or Elija
It is obligatory among Jews, Muslims, and Coptic Christians. Catholic, Orthodox, and Protestant Christians do not require circumcision. Starting in the last half of the 19th century, however, circumcision also became common among Christians in Europe and especially in North America.
However, the practice is still common among Christians in the United States, Oceania, South Korea, the Philippines, the Middle East and Africa. Some Middle Eastern Christians actually view the procedure as a rite of passage.
Christian theology generally interprets male circumcision to be an Old Testament rule that is no longer an obligation ... though in many countries (especially the United States and Sub-Saharan Africa, but not so much in Europe) it is widely practiced among Christians
Neonatal circumcision is the general practice among Jews, Christians, and many, but not all Muslims.
Although it is mostly common and required in male newborns with Moslem or Jewish backgrounds, certain Christian-dominant countries such as the United States also practice it commonly.
male circumcision is still observed among Ethiopian and Coptic Christians, and circumcision rates are also high today in the Philippines and the US.
Coptic Christians, Ethiopian Orthodox, and Eritrean Orthodox churches on the other hand, do observe the ordainment, and circumcise their sons anywhere from the first week of life to the first few years.
Uniformly practiced by Jews, Muslims, and the members of Coptic, Ethiopian, and Eritrean Orthodox Churches, male circumcision remains prevalent in many regions of the world, particularly Africa, South and East Asia, Oceania, and Anglosphere countries.
Male circumcision is standard practice, by tradition, among the Druze
Circumcision is not compulsory and has no religious significance.
There are many references to the Druze refusal to observe this common Muslim practice, one of the earliest being the rediscoverer of the ruins of Petra, John Burckhardt. "The Druses do not circumcise their children
Furthermore, from the judges' understanding of Christian teaching, interfaith marriage is similarly disallowed in the New Testament (2 Corinthians 6:14).
Although the church has attempted to work from these lines in formulating policies about so-called mixed marriages, the present verses do not deal with the majority of interfaith marriages as we know them in the late twentieth century. Paul is writing to first-century, first-generation converts, many of whom had religious backgrounds in paganism and many of whom might have spouses who were not believers.
... most Christian churches support members who take part in intermarriage, citing 1 Corinthians 7:12-14.
St. George is also the patron saint of Lebanese and Palestinian Christians.
He is also the patron saint of the Palestinian Christian community.
There are several examples of this: "Besides being the patron saint of England and of the Christians of Syria.
...Druze believe in seven prophets: Adam, Noah, Abraham, Moses, Jesus, Muhammad, and Muhammad ibn Ismail ad-Darazi..
They further believe that Hamza ibn Ali was a reincarnation of many prophets, including Christ, Plato, Aristotle.
...One example of Druze anti—Jewish bias is contained in an epistle ascribed to one of the founders of Druzism, Baha al-Din
the Druze believe that al - Khidr corresponds to St George in Christianity and to the Prophet Yahya in Islam.
...consonant with Mary's Jewish background
Like the rest of the Pentateuch, Exodus contains contradictions and redundancies. For example, Moses' father-in-law is sometimes called Reuel and sometimes Jethro; and the mountain of revelation is Sinai in some passages and Horeb in others.
J names Moses' father-in-law as Reuel or Hobab, whereas E knows him as Jethro, priest of Midian.
The Druze believe that prior to the full revelation of the true religion in the 11th century, there had been a series of "true prophets" whose identities were masked behind that of the "revealed prophet", and through whom they imparted a partial revelation. In accordance with this belief, they claim that Jethro/Shu'eyb was the "true" concealed prophet behind the secondary, revealed prophet, Moses.
The Druze believe that in every generation a prophet appears who is recognized as such by the people but he, in fact, receives his inspiration from a hidden prophet who communicates directly with God. The Druze believe that Jethro was the hidden prophet who inspired Moses, the recognized prophet.
The Druze symbol is a five colored star, with each color representing cosmic principles believed by the Druze
One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from a publication now in thepublic domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Silvestre de Sacy, Antoine Isaac".Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 25 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 119.The one hundred and eleven epistles can be found today in libraries around the world, including the British Museum, Cambridge, Manchester, Moscow, Munich, St Petersburg, Paris, Turin, Uppsala, Berlin, Vienna, the Bodleian Library, and the Vatican.
{{cite book}}:ISBN / Date incompatibility (help)Some Muslim rulers and jurists have advocated the persecution of members of the Druze Movement beginning with the seventh Fatimi Caliph Al-Zahir, in 1022. Recurring period of persecutions in subsequent centuries ... failure to elucidate their beliefs and practices, have contributed to the ambiguous relationship between Muslims and Druzes
Historically, Islam classified Christians, Jews, and Zoroastrians as protected "People of the Book," a secondary status subject to payment of a poll tax. Nevertheless, Zoroastrians suffered significant persecution. Other religions such as the Alawites, Alevis, and Druze often suffered more.
the Druze religion, though originating from the Isma'lliyya, an extreme branch of the Shia, seceded completely from Islam and has, therefore, experienced periods of persecution by the latter.
Lebanon therefore was the distributing center of the Druze people and Wādi - al - Taym was the birthplace of their faith.
The Tanukhids (whose territory spread from southwestern Iraq to southern Syria) were known for their devotion to Saint Thomas...
{{cite book}}:ISBN / Date incompatibility (help)Soon afterwards, the Shihabi amirs converted to Christianity and identified with the Maronite community.
turning point in the history of the Shihabis when the Amir Ali al - Shihabi became converted to Christianity and joined the Maronite Church.
the conversion to Christianity of several Muslim and Druze families aided this growth immeasurably
the Abillama' amirs, were mostly Christians converted from the Druze faith.
The Abillamah, by the way, also converted to Christianity when the Metn Mountains came to be densely inhabited by Christians, a second conversion for them, given that they already turned Druze earlier, relinquishing the Sunni religion
Other earlier converts were the Abillamah Druze Emirs and Harfush Shiite.
So did other amirs, like the originally Druze Abi-llamah family, which also became Maronite
namely the emirs of the house of Abul - Lama, used to be Druzes before they converted to Christianity and became Maronites
{{cite book}}:ISBN / Date incompatibility (help)some Christians (mostly from the Orthodox faith), as well as Druze, converted to Protestantism...
This also allowed some Druzes to convert secretly to Christianity...These converts left discreet funeral inscriptions revealing their Christian identity, while sharing the same mausoleum with their Druze ancestors...
This article incorporates text from this source, which is in thepublic domain.Many of the Druze have chosen to deemphasize their ethnic identity, and some have officially converted to Christianity.
US Druze settled in small towns and kept a low profile, joining Protestant churches (usually Presbyterian or Methodist) and often Americanizing their names..
The early migrants tended to mix well with the local population in Venezuela. The Eastern Christians, regardless of the long-standing disagreements (to put it lightly) between the Catholic and Eastern Christian faiths, converted quickly, and even the Druze and Muslims converted to Catholicism
Late Antiquity - Bowersock/Brown/Grabar.
social groups to which she belonged as an upper-class Druze woman married to a Greek Orthodox Christian
More than 200,000 people from the Sweida area carry Venezuelan citizenship and most are members of Syria's Druse sect, who immigrated to Venezuela in the past century.
El Aissami is a member of Venezuela's sizable Druze community. His father is Syrian, his mother Lebanese.
On Mt. Lebanon, so many Druze flocked to the shrine of the Virgin of the Mountain, located in the Shihabi administrative seat of Dayr al-Qamr, that it became known as the "Virgin of the Druze".
Christians have, on average, higher educational achievements, marry at an older age, have fewer children, and enjoy larger income... Druze and Muslims share many cultural patterns, and they have a similar socioeconomic standing, but while Druze males have to serve in the military, Muslim men (as well as Christian) do not.
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