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Christian symbolism is the use ofsymbols, includingarchetypes, acts, artwork or events, byChristianity. It invests objects or actions with an inner meaning expressing Christian ideas.
The symbolism of theearly Church was characterized by being understood by initiates only, while after thelegalization of Christianity in the Roman Empire during the 4th century more recognizable symbols entered in use.Christianity has borrowed from the common stock of significant symbols known to most periods and to all regions of the world.
Only a minority of Christian denominations have practicedaniconism, or the avoidance or prohibition of types of images. These include earlyJewish Christian sects, as well as some modern denominations such asBaptists that prefer to some extent not to use figures in their symbols due to theDecalogue's prohibition ofidolatry.
The shape of the cross, as represented by the letterT, came to be used as a "seal" or symbol ofEarly Christianity by the 2nd century.[1]At the end of the 2nd century, it is mentioned in theOctavius ofMinucius Felix, rejecting the claim by detractors that Christians worship the cross.[2]The cross (crucifix, Greekstauros) in this period was represented by the letterT.Clement of Alexandria in the early 3rd century calls itτὸ κυριακὸν σημεῖον ("the Lord's sign") and he repeats the idea, current as early as theEpistle of Barnabas, that the number 318 (inGreek numerals, ΤΙΗ) inGenesis 14:14 was a foreshadowing (a "type") of the cross (T, an upright with crossbar, standing for 300) and of Jesus (ΙΗ, the first two letters of his name ΙΗΣΟΥΣ, standing for 18).[3]
Clement's contemporaryTertullian also rejects the accusation that Christians arecrucis religiosi (i.e. "adorers of the gibbet"), and returns the accusation by likening the worship of pagan idols to the worship of poles or stakes.[4]In his bookDe Corona, written in 204, Tertullian tells how it was already a tradition for Christians to trace repeatedly on their foreheads thesign of the cross.[5]
While early Christians used the T-shape to represent the cross in writing and gesture, the use of theGreek cross andLatin cross, i.e. crosses with intersecting beams, appears inChristian art towards the end ofLate Antiquity. An early example of thecruciform halo, used to identify Christ in paintings, is found in theMiracles of the Loaves and Fishes mosaic ofSant'Apollinare Nuovo, Ravenna (datedc. 504).
Instances of theSt Thomas cross, a Greek cross with clover leaf edges, popular in southern India,[6] date to about the 6th century.[citation needed]
ThePatriarchal cross, a Latin cross with an additional horizontal bar, first appears in the 10th century.
TheCeltic cross, now often characterized by the presence of the outline of a circle upon which a cross, stylized in a pre-Medieval Celtic fashion, appears superimposed. The Celtic cross bears strong resemblance to the Christian cross; however, the Celtic cross motif predates Christianity by at least 3,000 years.[citation needed] It appears in the form of heavily sculpted, vertically oriented, ancient monoliths which survive in the present day, in various locations on the island of Ireland. A few of the ancient monuments were evidently relocated to stand in some of Ireland's earliest churchyards, probably between 400 CE and 600 CE, as Christianity was popularized throughout much of the island. The heavily-worn stone sculptures likely owe their continued survival to their sheer size and solid rock construction, which coordinate in scale, and in composition, with Ireland's ancient megalith arrangements.
Unlike the Christian cross iconography associated with the shape of a crucifix (commonly used for torture and execution of criminals and captured enemy prisoners-of-war, by the pre-Christian Roman Empire), the Celtic cross' design origins are not clear. The Celtic cross has nevertheless been repeated in statuary, as a dominant feature of the anthropogenic Irish landscape, for at least 5,000 years. The Celtic cross and the Christian cross are similar enough in shape, that the former was easily adopted by IrishCatholic culture, following the Christianization of Ireland. The Celtic cross is accurately described as an ancient symbol of cultural significance in pre-Christian, Druidic Ireland. It also is used as a symbolic icon of the interpretation of Christianity, unique to Irish culture in that pre-Christian Celtic tradition and Irish Druidic iconography are hybridized with Christian traditions and iconography (much like the Shamrock; a low-growing, daintily foliaged, dense ground cover plant, which is held as a timeless symbol of Ireland itself; and, which is also symbolic on Ireland, of the Christian Holy Trinity, due to the Shamrock's typical trifoliar leaf structure).
Although the cross was used as a symbol by early Christians, thecrucifix, i.e.depictions of the crucifixion scene, were rare prior to the 5th century; someengraved gems thought to be 2nd or 3rd century have survived, but the subject does not appear in the art of theCatacombs of Rome.[7]The purported discovery of theTrue Cross by Constantine's mother,Helena, and the development ofGolgotha as a site forpilgrimage led to a change of attitude. It was probably inPalestine that the image developed, and many of the earliest depictions are on theMonza ampullae, small metal flasks for holy oil, that were pilgrim's souvenirs from theHoly Land, as well as 5th century ivory reliefs from Italy.[8]
In the early medieval period, the plain cross became depicted as thecrux gemmata, covered with jewels, as many real early medievalprocessional crosses in goldsmith work were.The first depictions of crucifixion displaying suffering are believed to have arisen inByzantine art,[9] where the S-shaped slumped body type was developed. Early Western examples include theGero Cross and the reverse of theCross of Lothair, both from the end of the 10th century.
Marie-Madeleine Davy (1977) described in great detail Romanesque Symbolism as it developed in the Middle Ages in Western Europe.[10]
Among the symbols employed by the early Christians, that of the fish seems to have ranked first in importance. Its popularity among Christians was due principally to the famousacrostic consisting of the initial letters of fiveGreek words forming the word for fish (Ichthus or Ιχθυς), which words briefly but clearly described the character of Christ and the claim to worship of believers: "ἸησοῦςΧριστὸςΘεοῦΥἱὸςΣωτήρ" (Iēsous Christos Theou Huios Sōtēr), meaningJesus Christ, God's Son, Saviour.[11] This explanation is given among others byAugustine in hisCivitate Dei.[12]
The use since the earliest Christianity of the first and the last letters of theGreek alphabet,alpha (α orΑ) andomega (ω orΩ), derives from the statement said by Jesus (or God) himself "I am Alpha and Omega, the First and the Last, the Beginning and the End" (Revelation 22:13, also 1:8 and 21:6).
TheStaurogram ⳨ (from the Greekσταυρός, i.e.cross), alsoMonogrammatic Cross orTau-Rho symbol, is composed by atau (Τ) superimposed on arho (Ρ). The Staurogram was first used to abbreviate the Greek word for cross in very earlyNew Testamentmanuscripts such asP66,P45 andP75, almost like anomen sacrum, and may visually have represented Jesus on the cross.[13]
Ephrem the Syrian in the 4th century explained these two united letters stating that the tau refers to thecross, and the rho refers to the Greek word "help" (Βoήθια[sic]; proper spelling:Βoήθεια) which has thenumerological value in Greek of 100 as the letter rho has. In such a way the symbol expresses the idea that the Cross saves.[13] The two letters tau and rho can also be found separately as symbols on early Christianossuaries.[14]
The Monogrammatic Cross was later seen also as a variation of theChi Rho symbol, and it spread over Western Europe in the 5th and 6th centuries.[15]
TheChi Rho is formed by superimposing the first two (capital) letterschi andrho (ΧΡ) of the Greek word "ΧΡΙΣΤΟΣ", meaningChrist, in such a way to produce themonogram. Widespread in ancient Christianity, it was the symbol used by theRoman emperorConstantine I asvexillum (namedLabarum).
The first two letters of the name ofJesus inGreek,iota (Ι) andeta (Η), sometime superimposed one on the other, or thenumeric value 18 ofΙΗ in Greek, was a well known and very early way to represent Christ.[16] This symbol was already explained in theEpistle of Barnabas and byClement of Alexandria. For other christograms such as IHS, see ArticleChristogram.
An early form of the monogram of Christ, found in early Christianossuaries inPalaestina, was formed by superimposing the first (capital) letters of the Greek words forJesus andChrist, i.e.iotaΙ andchiΧ, so that thismonogram means "Jesus Christ".[14]: 166 Another more complicated explanation of this monogram was given byIrenaeus[17] andPachomius: because thenumeric value of iota is 10 and the chi is the initial of the word "Christ" (Greek:ΧΡΕΙΣΤΟΣ [sic]; proper spelling:ΧΡΙΣΤΟΣ) which has 8 letters, theseearly fathers calculate 888 [(10 × 8) × 10] + [(10 × 8) + 8], which was a number already known to represent Jesus, being the sum of the value of the letters of the nameJesus (ΙΗΣΟΥΣ) (10 + 8 + 200 + 70 + 400 + 200).[14]: 169–170
The image of the Good Shepherd, often with a sheep on his shoulders, is the most common of the symbolicrepresentations of Christ found in theCatacombs of Rome, and it is related to theParable of the Lost Sheep. Initially it was also understood as a symbol like others used inEarly Christian art. By about the 5th century the figure more often took on the appearance of the conventional depiction of Christ, as that convention had developed by this time, and was given ahalo and rich robes[citation needed].
Thedove as a Christian symbol is of very frequent occurrence in ancient ecclesiastical art.[18] According toMatthew 3:16, during theBaptism of Jesus theHoly Spirit descended like a dove and came to rest on Jesus. For this reason the dove became a symbol of the Holy Spirit, and in general it occurs frequently in connection with early representations of baptism. It signifies also the Christiansoul, not the human soul as such, but as indwelt by the Holy Spirit; especially, therefore, as freed from the toils of the flesh and entered into rest and glory.[19] ThePeristerium orEucharistic dove was often used in the past, and sometimes still appears inEastern Christianity, aschurch tabernacle.
However the more ancient explanation of the dove as a Christian symbol refers to it as a symbol ofChrist himself:Irenaeus[20] in the 2nd century explains that the number 801 is both thenumerological value of the sum in Greek of the letters of the word "dove" (Greek:περιστερά) and the sum of the values of the lettersAlpha and Omega, which refer to Christ.[citation needed] In the Bible story ofNoah and the Flood, after the flood a dove returns toNoah bringing anolive branch as a sign that the water had receded, and this scene recalled to theChurch Fathers Christ who brings salvation through the cross.[citation needed] This biblical scene led to interpreting the dove also as asymbol of peace.[citation needed]
The "wings of a dove", with associations of wealth and good fortune, contrast with misfortune and shame.[21]
Ancient Greeks believed that the flesh ofpeafowl did not decay after death, and so it became a symbol ofimmortality. Early Christianity adopted this symbolism, and thus many early Christian paintings and mosaics show the peacock. The peacock is still used in the Easter season – especially in the east.[22]The "eyes" in the peacock's tail feathers symbolise the all-seeing God and – in some interpretations – the Church.A peacock drinking from a vase is used as a symbol of a Christian believer drinking from the waters of eternal life.The peacock can also symbolise the cosmos if one interprets its tail with its many "eyes" as the vault of heaven dotted by the sun, moon, and stars.By adoption of old Persian and Babylonian symbolism, in which the peacock was associated with Paradise and the Tree of Life, the bird is again associated with immortality. In Christian iconography, the peacock is often depicted next to the Tree of Life.
Inmedieval Europe, thepelican was thought to be particularly attentive to her young, to the point of providing her own blood by wounding her own breast when no other food was available. As a result, the pelican became a symbol of thePassion ofJesus and of theEucharist from about the 12th century.[23]
Christians adopted theanchor as a symbol of hope in future existence because the anchor was regarded in ancient times as a symbol of safety. For Christians, Christ is the unfailing hope of all who believe in him:Saint Peter,Saint Paul, and several of the earlyChurch Fathers speak in this sense. TheEpistle to the Hebrews6:19–20 for the first time connects the idea of hope with the symbol of the anchor.[24]
A fragment of inscription discovered in thecatacomb of St. Domitilla contains the anchor; it dates from the end of the 1st century. During the 2nd and 3rd centuries the anchor occurs frequently in the epitaphs of the catacombs. The most common form of anchor found in early Christian images was that in which one extremity terminates in a ring adjoining the cross-bar while the other ends in two curved branches or an arrowhead; There are, however, many deviations from this form.[24] In general the anchor can symbolize hope, steadfastness, calm and composure.[25]
Traditionally, theshamrock is said to have been used bySaint Patrick to illustrate the Christian doctrine of theHoly Trinity whenChristianising Ireland in the 5th century. The legend goes that St. Patrick used the shamrock – aclover with three leaflets, native to Ireland – to illustrate thetripartite form of the Christian deity. Three parts on one plant to representGod the Father,God the Son, andThe Holy Ghost.[26]
Theearly Church made wide use ofelemental symbols. Water has specific symbolic significance for Christians. Outside of baptism, water may represent cleansing or purity. Fire, especially in the form of a candle flame, represents both theHoly Spirit and light. These symbols derive from theBible; for example from thetongues of fire[27] that symbolized the Holy Spirit atPentecost, and from Jesus' description of his followers asthe light of the world;[28] orGod is a consuming fire found inHebrews 12.[29]CompareJewish symbolism.
A lily crucifix is a rare symbol ofAnglican churches in England. It depicts Christ crucified on alily, or holding such a plant. The symbolism may derive from the medieval belief that the Annunciation of Christ and his crucifixion occurred on the same day of the year, March 25.[30](The lily, in the context of the Annunciation, emphasises the purity ofthe Virgin Mary.)
The rare depictions of a lily crucifix in England include most notably a painting on a wall above the side altar atAll Saints' Church,Godshill,Isle of Wight. Other examples include:
Christians from the very beginning adorned theircatacombs with paintings of Christ, of the saints, of scenes from the Bible and allegorical groups. The catacombs are the cradle of all Christian art.[32] Early Christians accepted the art of their time and used it, as well as a poor and persecuted community could, to express their religious ideas.[32] The use of deep, sometimes labyrinthine, catacombs for ritual burials are a product of the poverty of early Christian communities: the unusual, multileveled, burial chambers were, at surface-level, small plots of land used as entrances to the tiered catacombs below, by early Christians unable to afford large areas of land, nor the corresponding taxes sometimes levied on real estate, by regional authorities.
From the second half of the 1st century to the time ofConstantine the Great they buried their dead and celebrated their rites in these underground chambers. The Christian tombs were ornamented with indifferent or symbolic designs p alms, peacocks, with thechi-rho monogram, with bas-reliefs of Christ as theGood Shepherd, or seated between figures of saints, and sometimes with elaborate scenes from the New Testament.[32]
Other Christian symbols include thedove (symbolic of the Holy Spirit), the sacrificial lamb (symbolic of Christ's sacrifice), thevine (symbolizing the necessary connectedness of the Christian with Christ) and many others. These all derive from the writings found in the New Testament.[29] Other decorations that were common included garlands, ribands, stars landscapes, which had symbolic meanings, as well.[32]
Differentcolours are used in Christian churches to symbolise the liturgical seasons. They are often of clerical vestments, frontals and altar hangings. There is some variation between denominations, but below is a general description:
Some of the oldest symbols within theChristian Church are thesacraments, the number of which vary between denominations. Always included areEucharist andbaptism. The others which may or may not be included areordination,unction,confirmation,penance andmarriage. They are together commonly described asan outward and visible sign of an inward and spiritual grace or, as in Catholic theology, "outward signs and media of grace."[34]
The rite is seen as a symbol of the spiritual change or event that takes place. In the Eucharist, the bread and wine are symbolic of the body and shed blood ofJesus, and in Catholic theology, become theactualBody of Christ andBlood of Christ throughTransubstantiation.[34]
The rite of baptism is symbolic of the cleansing of the sinner by God, and, especially where baptism is by immersion, of the spiritual death and resurrection of the baptized person. Opinion differs as to the symbolic nature of the sacraments, with someProtestant denominations considering them entirely symbolic, andCatholics, Orthodox, Lutherans, and some Reformed Christians believing that the outward rites truly do, by the power of God, act as media of grace.[34]
The tomb paintings of the early Christians led to the development oficons. An icon is an image, picture, or representation; it is likeness that has symbolic meaning for an object by signifying or representing it, or by analogy, as insemiotics. The use of icons, however, was never without opposition. It was recorded that, "there is no century between the fourth and the eighth in which there is not some evidence of opposition to images even within the Church.[35][page needed] Nonetheless, popular favor for icons guaranteed their continued existence, while no systematic apologia for or against icons, or doctrinal authorization or condemnation of icons yet existed.
Though significant in the history of religious doctrine, the Byzantine controversy over images is not seen as of primary importance in Byzantine history. "Few historians still hold it to have been the greatest issue of the period..."[36][page needed]
TheByzantine Iconoclasm began when images were banned by EmperorLeo III the Isaurian sometime between 726 and 730. Under his sonConstantine V,a council forbidding image veneration was held at Hieria near Constantinople in 754. Image veneration was later reinstated by theEmpress Regent Irene, under whom another council was held reversing the decisions of the previous iconoclast council and taking its title asSeventh Ecumenical Council. The council anathematized all who held to iconoclasm, i.e. those who held that veneration of images constitutes idolatry. Then the ban was enforced again byLeo V in 815. And finally icon veneration was decisively restored byEmpress Regent Theodora.
Today icons are used particularly amongEastern Orthodox,Oriental Orthodox,Assyrian andEastern Catholic Churches.
The traditional mortuary symbolism of the dome led it to be used in Christian central-typemartyriums in theSyrian area, the growing popularity of which spread the form. The spread and popularity of the cult ofrelics also transformed the domed central-type martyriums into the domed churches of mainstream Christianity.[37] The use of centralized buildings for the burials of heroes was common by the time theAnastasis Rotunda was built in Jerusalem, but the use of centralized domed buildings to symbolizeresurrection was a Christian innovation.[38]
In Italy in the 4th century, baptisteries began to be built like domed mausoleums and martyriums, which spread in the 5th century. This reinforced the theological emphasis on baptism as a re-experience of the death andresurrection of Jesus Christ.[39] The octagon, which is transitional between the circle and the square, came to represent Jesus' resurrection in early Christianity and was used in the ground plans of martyriums and baptisteries for that reason. The domes themselves were sometimes octagonal, rather than circular.[40] Nicholas Temple proposes the imperial reception hall as an additional source of influence on baptisteries, conveying the idea of reception or redemptive passage to salvation. Iconography of assembled figures and the throne of Christ would also relate to this.[41]
Portraits ofChrist began to replace gold crosses at the centers of church domes beginning in the late eighth century, which Charles Stewart suggests may have been an over-correction in favor of images after the periods ofIconoclasm in the eighth and ninth centuries. One of the first was on the nave dome ofHagia Sophia in Thessaloniki, and this eventually developed into the bust image known as thePantokrator.[42]Otto Demus writes thatMiddle Byzantine churches were decorated in a systematic manner and can be seen as having three zones of decoration, with the holiest at the top. This uppermost zone contained the dome, drum and apse. The dome was reserved for the Pantokrator (meaning "ruler of all"), the drum usually contained images of angels or prophets, and the apse semi-dome usually depicted the Virgin Mary, typically holding the Christ child and flanked by angels.[43]
The influence of Judaism upon Christian symbolism as early as the 2nd and 3rd centuries CE, is apparent both in painting and in sculpture, the most frequent motives being those that occur in theMishnah as formulas for prayer on fast-days. The prayer beginning with the words "Mi she-'anah", which was included in theselihah at an early date, was adopted in the Christian ritual as the litany "Libera domine". This litany was figuratively used in a certain sequence as a symbol, for thesacrifice ofIsaac was regarded as a symbol of thecrucifixion ofJesus, since the early religions, and the act of sacrifice emblemized the death on the cross.
Abraham was represented as the symbol of the power of faith and Isaac as the sacrificed redeemer. The ascension ofElijah (english : Elia or Elias) was believed to typify theascension of Jesus Christ, who was regarded by Christian symbolism as an analogue to Elijah, although this ascension was also taken as a type of the generalresurrection from the dead. Job sitting among the ashes was the symbol of patience and of the power of resistance of the flesh; andHananiah,Mishael, andAzariah in the fiery furnace typified steadfastness in persecution and faith in the aid of God. Christiansarcophagi contained artistic representations of the fall of man,Noah and the ark, scenes from the life ofMoses in three variations,Joshua,David, andDaniel.
During the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, there developed in Europe a most unusual, haunting and beautiful depiction of the Crucifixion: Christ is shown crucified, not on a Cross, but on a lily. The origin of this idea lies in the biblical conviction that Jesus was descended from Jesse, the father of King David. [...]This idea received pictorial form in 'The Tree of Jesse' Jesse is depicted lying on the ground, and from his chest grows a branching tree or vine. On the branches are shown the descendents of Jesse, kings and prophets, up to Jesus. [...] The tree of Jesse seems to have originated in the middle of the eleventh century in France. Sometimes, on the apex of this tree is a lily and hanging on the flowers is Christ crucified.
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