| Part ofa series on |
| Christian culture |
|---|
 |
| Christianity portal |
Christendom or theChristian world[2][3] are terms commonly used to refer to the global Christian community,Christian states,Christian-majority countries or countries in whichChristianity is dominant[4] or prevails.[2]
Following the spread of Christianity from theLevant toEurope andNorth Africa during the earlyRoman Empire, Christendom has been divided in the pre-existingGreek East and Latin West. After theGreat schism of 1054, two main branches within Christianity emerged, centred around the cities ofRome (Western Christianity, whose community was called Western or Latin Christendom[5]) andConstantinople (Eastern Christianity, whose community was called Eastern Christendom[6] orByzantine commonwealth). After thefall of Constantinople in 1453,Latin Christendom rose to a central role in theWestern world.[7] Following thereformation,protestantism emerged as the third main branch of Christianity in the 16th century. The history of the Christian world spans about 2,000 years and includes a variety of socio-political developments, as well as advancements in thearts,architecture,literature,science,philosophy,politics and technology.[8][9][10]
TheAnglo-Saxon termcrīstendōm appears to have been coined in the 9th century by a scribe somewhere in southern England, possibly at the court of kingAlfred the Great ofWessex. The scribe was translatingPaulus Orosius' bookHistory Against the Pagans (c. 416) and in need for a term to express the concept of the universal culture focused onJesus Christ.[11] It had the sense now taken byChristianity (as is still the case with the cognate Dutchchristendom,[12] where it denotes mostly the religion itself, just like the GermanChristentum).[13]
The current sense of the word of "lands where Christianity is the dominant religion"[4] emerged inLate Middle English (byc. 1400).[14]
Canadian theology professorDouglas John Hall stated (1997) that "Christendom" [...] means literally the dominion or sovereignty of the Christian religion."[4]Thomas John Curry, Roman Catholic auxiliary bishop ofLos Angeles, defined (2001) Christendom as "the system dating from the fourth century by which governments upheld and promoted Christianity."[15] Curry states that the end of Christendom came about because modern governments refused to "uphold the teachings, customs, ethos, and practice of Christianity."[15] Britishchurch historianDiarmaid MacCulloch described (2010) Christendom as "the union between Christianity and secular power."[16]
Christendom was originally a medieval concept which has steadily evolved since the fall of the Western Roman Empire and the gradual rise of the Papacy more in religio-temporal implications practically during and after the reign of Charlemagne; and the concept let itself be lulled in the minds of the staunch believers to the archetype of a holy religious space inhabited by Christians, blessed by God, the Heavenly Father, ruled by Christ through the Church and protected by the Spirit-body of Christ; no wonder, this concept, as included the whole of Europe and then the expanding Christian territories on earth, strengthened the roots of Romance of the greatness of Christianity in the world.[17]
There is a common and nonliteral sense of the word that is much like the termsWestern world,known world orFree World. The notion of "Europe" and the "Western World" has been intimately connected with the concept of "Christianity and Christendom"; many even attribute Christianity for being the link that created a unifiedEuropean identity.[18]
Early Christianity spread in the Greek/Roman world and beyond as a 1st-centuryJewish sect,[19] which historians refer to asJewish Christianity. It may be divided into two distinct phases: theapostolic period, when the first apostles were alive and organizing the Church, and thepost-apostolic period, when an earlyepiscopal structure developed, whereby bishoprics were governed bybishops (overseers).
The post-apostolic period concerns the time roughly after the death of the apostles when bishops emerged as overseers of urban Christian populations. The earliest recorded use of the termsChristianity (GreekΧριστιανισμός) andcatholic (Greekκαθολικός), dates to this period, the2nd century, attributed toIgnatius of Antiochc. 107.[20] Early Christendom would close at the end ofimperial persecution of Christians after the ascension ofConstantine the Great and theEdict of Milan in AD 313 and theFirst Council of Nicaea in 325.[21]
According toMalcolm Muggeridge (1980), Christ founded Christianity, but Constantine founded Christendom.[22] Canadian theology professorDouglas John Hall dates the 'inauguration of Christendom' to the 4th century, with Constantine playing the primary role (so much so that he equates Christendom with "Constantinianism") and Theodosius I (Edict of Thessalonica, 380) andJustinian I[a] secondary roles.[24]
"Christendom" has referred to themedieval andrenaissance notion of theChristian world as apolity. In essence, the earliest vision of Christendom was a vision of a Christiantheocracy, agovernment founded upon and upholdingChristian values, whose institutions are spread through and over withChristian doctrine. In this period, members of the Christianclergy wieldpolitical authority. The specific relationship between thepolitical leaders and theclergy varied but, in theory, the national and political divisions were at times subsumed under the leadership of thechurch as an institution. Thismodel of church-state relations was accepted by various Church leaders and political leaders inEuropean history.[25]
The Church gradually became a defining institution of the Roman Empire.[26]Emperor Constantine issued theEdict of Milan in 313 proclaiming toleration for the Christian religion, andconvoked theFirst Council of Nicaea in 325 whoseNicene Creed included belief in "one holy catholic and apostolic Church". EmperorTheodosius I madeNicene Christianity thestate church of the Roman Empire with theEdict of Thessalonica of 380.[27] In terms of prosperity and cultural life, theByzantine Empire was one of the peaks inChristian history andChristian civilization,[28] andConstantinople remained the leading city of theChristian world in size, wealth, and culture.[29]There was a renewed interest in classical Greek philosophy, as well as an increase in literary output in vernacular Greek.[30]
As theWestern Roman Empiredisintegrated intofeudal kingdoms andprincipalities, the concept of Christendom changed as thewestern church became one of five patriarchates of thePentarchy and the Christians of theEastern Roman Empire developed.[clarification needed] TheByzantine Empire was the last bastion of Christendom.[31] Christendom would take a turn with the rise of theFranks, a Germanic tribe who converted to the Christian faith and entered intocommunion with Rome.
On Christmas Day 800 AD,Pope Leo III crownedCharlemagne, resulting in the creation of another Christian king beside the Christian emperor in theByzantine state.[32][unreliable source?] TheCarolingian Empire created a definition ofChristendom in juxtaposition with the Byzantine Empire, that of a distributed versus centralizedculture respectively.[33]
The classical heritage flourished throughout the Middle Ages in both the Byzantine Greek East and the Latin West. In the Greek philosopherPlato's ideal state there are three major classes, which was representative of the idea of the "tripartite soul", which is expressive of three functions or capacities of the human soul: "reason", "the spirited element", and "appetites" (or "passions").Will Durant made a convincing case that certain prominent features of Plato'sideal community where discernible in the organization, dogma and effectiveness of "the" Medieval Church in Europe:[34]
... For a thousand years Europe was ruled by an order of guardians considerably like that which was visioned by our philosopher. During the Middle Ages it was customary to classify the population of Christendom intolaboratores (workers),bellatores (soldiers), andoratores (clergy). The last group, though small in number, monopolized the instruments and opportunities of culture, and ruled with almost unlimited sway half of the most powerful continent on the globe. The clergy, like Plato's guardians, were placed in authority... by their talent as shown in ecclesiastical studies and administration, by their disposition to a life of meditation and simplicity, and ... by the influence of their relatives with the powers of state and church. In the latter half of the period in which they ruled [800 AD onwards], the clergy were as free from family cares as even Plato could desire [for such guardians]... [Clerical] Celibacy was part of the psychological structure of the power of the clergy; for on the one hand they were unimpeded by the narrowing egoism of the family, and on the other their apparent superiority to the call of the flesh added to the awe in which lay sinners held them....[34]
After thecollapse of Charlemagne's empire, the southern remnants of theHoly Roman Empire became a collection ofstates loosely connected to theHoly See of Rome. Tensions betweenPope Innocent III and secular rulers ran high, as thepontiff exerted control over their temporal counterparts in the west and vice versa. Thepontificate of Innocent III is considered the height of temporal power of the papacy. TheCorpus Christianum described the then-current notion of thecommunity of allChristians united under theRoman Catholic Church. The community was to be guided by Christian values in its politics, economics and social life.[35] Its legal basis was thecorpus iuris canonica (body of canon law).[36][37][38][39]
In the East, Christendom became more defined as theByzantine Empire's gradual loss of territory to anexpanding Islam and theMuslim conquest of Persia. This caused Christianity to become important to the Byzantine identity. Before theEast–West Schism which divided the Church religiously, there had been the notion of auniversal Christendom that included the East and the West. After the East–West Schism, hopes of regaining religious unity with the West were ended by theFourth Crusade, whenCrusadersconquered the Byzantine capital of Constantinople and hastened thedecline of the Byzantine Empire on thepath to its destruction.[40][41][42] With the breakup of the Byzantine Empire into individual nations with nationalist Orthodox Churches, the term Christendom described Western Europe, Catholicism, Orthodox Byzantines, and other Eastern rites of the Church.[43][44]
TheCatholic Church's peak of authority over all European Christians and their common endeavours of the Christian community—for example, theCrusades, the fight against theMoors in theIberian Peninsula and against theOttomans in theBalkans—helped to develop a sense of communal identity against the obstacle of Europe's deep political divisions. The popes, formally just the bishops of Rome, claimed to be the focus of all Christendom, which was largely recognised in Western Christendom from the 11th century until the Reformation, but not in Eastern Christendom.[45] Moreover, this authority was also sometimes abused, and fostered theInquisition andanti-Jewishpogroms, to root out divergent elements and create a religiously uniform community.[46] Ultimately, the Inquisition was done away with by order of Pope Innocent III.[47]
Christendom ultimately was led into specific crisis in thelate Middle Ages, when thekings of France managed to establish a French national church during the 14th century and the papacy became ever more aligned with theHoly Roman Empire of the German Nation. Known as theWestern Schism, western Christendom was a split between three men, who were driven by politics rather than any real theological disagreement for simultaneously claiming to be the true pope. TheAvignon Papacy developed a reputation for corruption that estranged major parts of Western Christendom. The Avignon schism was ended by theCouncil of Constance.[48]
Before the modern period, Christendom was in a general crisis at the time of theRenaissance Popes because of the moral laxity of these pontiffs and their willingness to seek and rely on temporal power as secular rulers did.[citation needed] Many in the Catholic Church's hierarchy in the Renaissance became increasingly entangled with insatiable greed for material wealth and temporal power, which led to many reform movements, some merely wanting a moral reformation of the Church's clergy, while others repudiated the Church and separated from it in order to form new sects.[citation needed] TheItalian Renaissance produced ideas or institutions by which men living in society could be held together in harmony. In the early 16th century,Baldassare Castiglione (The Book of the Courtier) laid out his vision of the ideal gentleman and lady, whileMachiavelli cast a jaundiced eye on "la verità effetuale delle cose"—the actual truth of things—inThe Prince, composed, humanist style, chiefly of parallel ancient and modern examples ofVirtù. Some Protestant movements grew up along lines ofmysticism orrenaissance humanism (cf.Erasmus). The Catholic Church fell partly into general neglect under the Renaissance Popes, whose inability to govern the Church by showing personal example of high moral standards set the climate for what would ultimately become the Protestant Reformation.[49] During the Renaissance, the papacy was mainly run by the wealthy families and also had strong secular interests. To safeguard Rome and the connected Papal States the popes became necessarily involved in temporal matters, even leading armies, as the great patron of artsPope Julius II did. During these intermediate times, popes strove to make Rome the capital of Christendom while projecting it through art, architecture, and literature as the center of a Golden Age of unity, order, and peace.[50]
Professor Frederick J. McGinness described Rome as essential in understanding the legacy the Church and its representatives encapsulated best byThe Eternal City:
No other city in Europe matches Rome in its traditions, history, legacies, and influence in the Western world. Rome in the Renaissance under the papacy not only acted as guardian and transmitter of these elements stemming from the Roman Empire but also assumed the role as artificer and interpreter of its myths and meanings for the peoples of Europe from the Middle Ages to modern times... Under the patronage of the popes, whose wealth and income were exceeded only by their ambitions, the city became a cultural center for master architects, sculptors, musicians, painters, and artisans of every kind...In its myth and message, Rome had become the sacred city of the popes, the prime symbol of a triumphant Catholicism, the center of orthodox Christianity, a new Jerusalem.[51]
It is clearly noticeable that the popes of the Italian Renaissance have been subjected by many writers with an overly harsh tone. Pope Julius II, for example, was not only an effective secular leader in military affairs, a deviously effective politician but foremost one of thegreatest patron of the Renaissance period and person who also encouraged open criticism from noted humanists.[52]
The blossoming of renaissance humanism was made very much possible due to the universality of the institutions of Catholic Church and represented by personalities such asPope Pius II,Nicolaus Copernicus,Leon Battista Alberti,Desiderius Erasmus, sirThomas More,Bartolomé de Las Casas,Leonardo da Vinci andTeresa of Ávila.George Santayana in his workThe Life of Reason postulated the tenets of the all encompassing order the Church had brought and as the repository of the legacy ofclassical antiquity:[53]
The enterprise of individuals or of small aristocratic bodies has meantime sown the world which we call civilised with some seeds and nuclei of order. There are scattered about a variety of churches, industries, academies, and governments. But the universal order once dreamt of and nominally almost established, the empire of universal peace, all-permeating rational art, and philosophical worship, is mentioned no more. An unformulated conception, the prerational ethics of private privilege and national unity, fills the background of men's minds. It represents feudal traditions rather than the tendency really involved in contemporary industry, science, or philanthropy. Those dark ages, from which our political practice is derived, had a political theory which we should do well to study; for their theory about a universal empire and a Catholic church was in turn the echo of a former age of reason, when a few men conscious of ruling the world had for a moment sought to survey it as a whole and to rule it justly.[53]
Developments inwestern philosophy and European events brought change to the notion of theCorpus Christianum. TheHundred Years' War accelerated the process of transforming France from a feudal monarchy to a centralized state. The rise ofstrong, centralized monarchies[54] denoted the European transition fromfeudalism tocapitalism. By the end of the Hundred Years' War, both France and England were able to raise enough money through taxation to create independent standing armies. In theWars of the Roses,Henry Tudor took the crown of England. His heir, theabsolute kingHenry VIII establishing theEnglish church.[55]
Inmodern history,the Reformation and rise ofmodernity in the early 16th century entailed a change in theCorpus Christianum. In theHoly Roman Empire, thePeace of Augsburg of 1555 officially ended the idea among secular leaders that all Christians must be united under one church.[56] The principle ofcuius regio, eius religio ("whose the region is, his religion") established the religious, political and geographic divisions of Christianity, and this was established with theTreaty of Westphalia in 1648, which legally ended the concept of a single Christian hegemony in the territories of the Holy Roman Empire, despite theCatholic Church's doctrine that it alone is the one true Church founded by Christ.[57]Subsequently, each government determined the religion of their own state. Christians living in states where their denomination wasnot the established one were guaranteed the right to practice their faith in public during allotted hours and in private at their will.[57] At times there were mass expulsions of dissenting faiths as happened with theSalzburg Protestants. Some people passed as adhering to the official church, but instead lived asNicodemites orcrypto-protestants.[58]
TheEuropean wars of religion are usually taken to have ended with the Treaty of Westphalia (1648),[59] or arguably, including theNine Years' War and theWar of the Spanish Succession in this period, with theTreaty of Utrecht of 1713.[60] In the 18th century, the focus shifts away from religious conflicts, either between Christian factions or against the external threat of Islamic factions.[citation needed]
TheEuropean Miracle, theAge of Enlightenment and the formation of the greatcolonial empires, together with the beginningdecline of the Ottoman Empire, mark the end of the geopolitical "history of Christendom".[61] Instead, the focus of Western history shifts to the development of thenation-state, accompanied by increasingatheism andsecularism, culminating with theFrench Revolution and theNapoleonic Wars at the turn of the 19th century.[61]
In his 1964encyclical letterEcclesiam Suam,Pope Paul VI observed that
One part of [the] world ... has in recent years detached itself and broken away from the Christian foundations of its culture, although formerly it had been so imbued with Christianity and had drawn from it such strength and vigor that the people of these nations in many cases owe to Christianity all that is best in their own tradition.[62]
Writing in 1997, Canadiantheology professorDouglas John Hall argued that Christendom had either fallen already or was in its death throes; although its end was gradual and not as clear to pin down as its 4th-century establishment, the "transition to the post-Constantinian, or post-Christendom, situation (...) has already been in process for a century or two", beginning with the 18th-century rationalist Enlightenment and the French Revolution (the first attempt to topple the Christian establishment).[24] American Catholic bishopThomas John Curry stated in 2001 that the end of Christendom came about because modern governments refused to "uphold the teachings, customs, ethos, and practice of Christianity".[15] He argued theFirst Amendment to the United States Constitution (1791) and theSecond Vatican Council'sDeclaration on Religious Freedom (1965) are two of the most important documents setting the stage for its end.[15] According to British historian Diarmaid MacCulloch (2010), Christendom was 'killed' by theFirst World War (1914–18), which led to the fall of the three main Christian empires (Russian,German andAustrian) of Europe, as well as the Ottoman Empire, rupturing the Eastern Christian communities that had existed on its territory. The Christian empires were replaced by secular, even anti-clerical republics seeking to definitively keep the churches out of politics. The only surviving monarchy with an established church, Britain, was severely damaged by the war, lostmost of Ireland due to Catholic–Protestant infighting, and was starting to lose grip on its colonies.[16]
Changes in worldwide Christianity over the last century have been significant, since 1900, Christianity has spread rapidly in theGlobal South and Third World countries.[63] The late 20th century has shown the shift of Christian adherence to theThird World and the Southern Hemisphere in general,[64] by 2010 about 157 countries and territories in the world hadChristian majorities.[1]
.JPG)
Western culture, throughout most of its history, has been nearly equivalent toChristian culture, and many of the population of the Western hemisphere could broadly be described ascultural Christians. The notion of "Europe" and the "Western World" has been intimately connected with the concept of "Christianity and Christendom"; many even attribute Christianity for being the link that created a unifiedEuropean identity.[18]Historian Paul Legutko ofStanford University said theCatholic Church is "at the center of the development of the values, ideas, science, laws, and institutions which constitute what we call Western civilization."[10]
Though Western culture contained several polytheistic religions during its early years under theGreek andRoman Empires, as the centralized Roman power waned, the dominance of the Catholic Church was the only consistent force in Western Europe.[65] Until theAge of Enlightenment,[66] Christian culture guided the course of philosophy, literature, art, music and science.[65][8] Christian disciplines of the respective arts have subsequently developed intoChristian philosophy,Christian art,Christian music,Christian literature etc. Art and literature, law, education, and politics were preserved in the teachings of the Church, in an environment that, otherwise, would have probably seen their loss. The Church founded manycathedrals,universities,monasteries andseminaries, some of which continue to exist today.Medieval Christianity created the firstmodern universities.[67][68] The Catholic Church established a hospital system in medieval Europe that vastly improved upon the Romanvaletudinaria.[69] These hospitals were established to cater to "particular social groups marginalized by poverty, sickness, and age," according to historian of hospitals, Guenter Risse.[70] Christianity also had a strong impact on all other aspects of life: marriage and family, education, the humanities and sciences, the political and social order, the economy, and the arts.[71]
Christianity had a significant impact on education and science and medicine as the church created the bases of the Western system of education,[72] and was the sponsor of foundinguniversities in the Western world as the university is generally regarded as an institution that has its origin in theMedieval Christian setting.[73][74] Manyclerics throughout history have made significant contributions to science andJesuits in particular have made numerous significant contributions to thedevelopment of science.[75][76][77] The cultural influence of Christianity includessocial welfare,[78] foundinghospitals,[79] economics (as theProtestant work ethic),[80][81]natural law (which would later influence the creation ofinternational law),[82] politics,[83] architecture,[84] literature,[85]personal hygiene,[86][87] and family life.[88] Christianity played a role in ending practices common amongpagansocieties, such ashuman sacrifice,slavery,[89]infanticide andpolygamy.[90]
Christian literature is writing that deals with Christian themes and incorporates the Christian world view. This constitutes a huge body of extremely varied writing.Christian poetry is anypoetry that containsChristian teachings,themes, or references. The influence of Christianity onpoetry has been great in any area that Christianity has taken hold. Christian poems often directly reference theBible, while others provideallegory.[91]
Christian art is art produced in an attempt to illustrate, supplement and portray in tangible form the principles ofChristianity. Virtually all Christian groupings use or have used art to some extent. The prominence of art and the media, style, and representations change; however, the unifying theme is ultimately the representation of the life and times ofJesus and in some cases theOld Testament. Depictions of saints are also common, especially inAnglicanism,Roman Catholicism, andEastern Orthodoxy.[92]
Anilluminated manuscript is amanuscript in which thetext is supplemented by the addition of decoration. The earliest surviving substantive illuminated manuscripts are from the periodAD 400 to 600, primarily produced in Ireland,Constantinople and Italy. The majority of surviving manuscripts are from theMiddle Ages, although many illuminated manuscripts survive from the 15th centuryRenaissance, along with a very limited number fromLate Antiquity.[93]
Most illuminated manuscripts were created ascodices, which had superseded scrolls; some isolated single sheets survive. A very few illuminated manuscript fragments survive onpapyrus. Most medieval manuscripts, illuminated or not, were written onparchment (most commonly ofcalf, sheep, or goat skin), but most manuscripts important enough to illuminate were written on the best quality of parchment, calledvellum, traditionally made of unsplitcalfskin, though high quality parchment from other skins was also calledparchment.[94]
Christian art began, about two centuries after Christ, by borrowing motifs fromRomanImperialimagery,classical Greek and Roman religion and popular art.Religious images are used to some extent by theAbrahamic Christian faith, and often contain highly complex iconography, which reflects centuries of accumulated tradition.[95] In theLate Antique period iconography began to be standardised, and to relate more closely toBiblical texts, although many gaps in thecanonical Gospel narratives were plugged with matter from theapocryphal gospels. Eventually the Church would succeed in weeding most of these out, but some remain, like the ox and ass in theNativity of Christ.
Anicon is a religious work of art, most commonly a painting, fromEastern Christianity. Christianity has used symbolism from its very beginnings.[92] In both East and West, numerous iconic types ofChrist,Mary and saints and other subjects were developed; the number of named types of icons of Mary, with or without the infant Christ, was especially large in the East, whereasChrist Pantocrator was much the commonest image of Christ.
Christian symbolism invests objects or actions with an inner meaning expressing Christian ideas. Christianity has borrowed from the common stock of significant symbols known to most periods and to all regions of the world.[96]Religious symbolism is effective when it appeals to both the intellect and the emotions. Especially important depictions of Mary include theHodegetria andPanagia types. Traditional models evolved for narrative paintings, including large cycles covering the events of the Life of Christ, theLife of the Virgin, parts of the Old Testament, and, increasingly, the lives of popularsaints. Especially in the West, a system ofattributes developed foridentifying individual figures of saints by a standard appearance and symbolic objects held by them; in the East they were more likely to identified by text labels.[92]
Each saint has a story and a reason why he or she led an exemplary life.Symbols have been used to tell these stories throughout the history of the Church. A number of Christian saints are traditionally represented by a symbol oriconic motif associated with their life, termed an attribute oremblem, in order to identify them. The study of these forms part oficonography inArt history.[97]
Christian architecture encompasses a wide range of both secular and religious styles from the foundation of Christianity to the present day, influencing the design and construction of buildings and structures inChristian culture.[98]
Buildings were at first adapted from those originally intended for other purposes but, with the rise of distinctively ecclesiastical architecture, church buildings came to influence secular ones which have often imitated religious architecture. In the 20th century, the use of new materials, such as concrete, as well as simpler styles has had its effect upon the design of churches and arguably the flow of influence has been reversed.[99] From the birth of Christianity to the present, the most significant period of transformation forChristian architecture in the west was theGothic cathedral. In the east,Byzantine architecture was a continuation ofRoman architecture.[100]
Christian philosophy is a term to describe the fusion of various fields ofphilosophy with thetheological doctrines of Christianity.[101]Scholasticism, which means "that [which] belongs to the school", and was a method of learning taught by theacademics (orschool people) of medievaluniversities c. 1100–1500.[102]Scholasticism originally started to reconcile thephilosophy of the ancient classical philosophers with medieval Christian theology. Scholasticism is not a philosophy or theology in itself but a tool and method for learning which places emphasis ondialectical reasoning.[102]
 | This sectionmay contain materialunrelated to the topic of the article and should be moved toChristianity and science instead. Please helpimprove this section or discuss this issue on thetalk page.(January 2018) (Learn how and when to remove this message) |
TheByzantine Empire, which was the most sophisticated culture during antiquity, suffered underMuslim conquests limiting its scientific prowess during theMedieval period. ChristianWestern Europe had suffered a catastrophic loss of knowledge following the fall of theWestern Roman Empire. But thanks to theChurch scholars such asAquinas andBuridan, the West carried on at least the spirit of scientific inquiry which would later lead to Europe's taking the lead in science during theScientific Revolution usingtranslations of medieval works.
Medieval technology refers to thetechnology used inmedieval Europe under Christian rule. After theRenaissance of the 12th century, medieval Europe saw a radical change in the rate of new inventions, innovations in the ways of managing traditional means of production, and economic growth.[103] The period saw majortechnological advances, including the adoption ofgunpowder and theastrolabe, the invention ofspectacles, and greatly improvedwater mills,building techniques,agriculture in general,clocks, andships. The latter advances made possible the dawn of theAge of Exploration. The development of water mills was impressive, and extended from agriculture tosawmills both for timber and stone, probably derived fromRoman technology. By the time of theDomesday Book, most large villages inBritain had mills. They also were widely used inmining, as described byGeorg Agricola inDe Re Metallica for raising ore from shafts, crushing ore, and even poweringbellows.
Significant in this respect were advances within the fields ofnavigation. Thecompass andastrolabe along with advances in shipbuilding, enabled the navigation of theWorld Oceans and thus domination of the worlds economic trade.Gutenberg'sprinting press made possible a dissemination of knowledge to a wider population, that would not only lead to a gradually moreegalitarian society, but one more able to dominate other cultures, drawing from a vast reserve of knowledge and experience.
During theRenaissance, great advances occurred in geography, astronomy, chemistry, physics, math, manufacturing, and engineering. The rediscovery of ancient scientific texts was accelerated after the Fall of Constantinople, and the invention ofprinting which would democratize learning and allow a faster propagation of new ideas.Renaissance technology is the set of artifacts and customs, spanning roughly the 14th through the 16th century. The era is marked by such profound technical advancements like theprinting press,linear perspectivity,patent law,double shell domes orBastion fortresses. Draw-books of the Renaissance artist-engineers such asTaccola andLeonardo da Vinci give a deep insight into the mechanical technology then known and applied.
Renaissance science spawned theScientific Revolution; science and technology began a cycle of mutual advancement. TheScientific Renaissance was the early phase of the Scientific Revolution. In the two-phase model ofearly modern science: aScientific Renaissance of the 15th and 16th centuries, focused on the restoration of the natural knowledge of the ancients; and aScientific Revolution of the 17th century, when scientists shifted from recovery to innovation. Some scholars and historians attributes Christianity to having contributed to the rise of theScientific Revolution.[104][105][106][107]
ProfessorNoah J Efron says that "Generations of historians and sociologists have discovered many ways in which Christians, Christian beliefs, and Christian institutions played crucial roles in fashioning the tenets, methods, and institutions of what in time became modern science. They found that some forms of Christianity provided the motivation to study nature systematically..."[108] Virtually all modern scholars and historians agree that Christianity moved many early-modern intellectuals to study nature systematically.[109]
In 2009, according to theEncyclopædia Britannica, Christianity was the majority religion in Europe (including Russia) with 80%,Latin America with 92%,North America with 81%, andOceania with 79%.[110] There are also large Christian communities in other parts of the world, such as China, India andCentral Asia, where Christianity is the second-largest religion afterIslam. The United States is home to the world's largest Christian population, followed byBrazil and Mexico.[111]
Many Christians not only live under, but also have an official status in, astate religion of the following nations:Argentina (Roman Catholic Church),[112]Armenia (Armenian Apostolic Church),[113]Costa Rica (Roman Catholic Church),[114]Denmark (Church of Denmark),[115]El Salvador (Roman Catholic Church),[116]England (Church of England),[117]Georgia (Georgian Orthodox Church),Greece (Church of Greece),Iceland (Church of Iceland),[118]Liechtenstein (Roman Catholic Church),[119]Malta (Roman Catholic Church),[120]Monaco (Roman Catholic Church),[121]Romania (Romanian Orthodox Church),Norway (Church of Norway),[122]Vatican City (Roman Catholic Church),[123]Switzerland (Roman Catholic Church,Swiss Reformed Church andChristian Catholic Church of Switzerland).
The estimated number ofChristians in the world ranges from 2.2 billion[124][125][126][127] to 2.4 billion people.[b] The faith represents approximately one-third of the world's population and is the largest religion in the world,[126] with thethree largest groups of Christians being theCatholic Church,Protestantism, and theEastern Orthodox Church.[128] The largest Christian denomination is the Catholic Church, with an estimated 1.2 billion adherents.[129]
| Tradition | Followers | % of the Christian population | % of the world population | Follower dynamics | Dynamics in- and outside Christianity |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Catholic Church | 1,094,610,000 | 50.1 | 15.9 |  Growing |  Declining |
| Protestantism | 800,640,000 | 36.7 | 11.6 | Growing | Growing |
| Orthodoxy | 260,380,000 | 11.9 | 3.8 | Declining | Declining |
| Other Christianity | 28,430,000 | 1.3 | 0.4 | Growing | Growing |
| Christianity | 2,184,060,000 | 100 | 31.7 | Growing |  Stable |
Areligious order is a lineage of communities and organizations of people who live in some way set apart from society in accordance with their specific religious devotion, usually characterized by the principles of its founder's religious practice. In contrast, the termHoly Orders is used by many Christian churches to refer to ordination or to a group of individuals who are set apart for a special role or ministry. Historically, the word "order" designated an established civil body or corporation with a hierarchy, and ordination meant legal incorporation into an ordo. The word "holy" refers to the Church. In context, therefore, a holy order is set apart for ministry in the Church. Religious orders are composed of initiates (laity) and, in some traditions, ordained clergies.
Various organizations include:
Within the framework of Christianity, there are at least three possible definitions for Church law. One is the Torah/Mosaic Law (from what Christians consider to be theOld Testament) also calledDivine Law orBiblical law. Another is the instructions ofJesus of Nazareth in theGospel (sometimes referred to asthe Law of Christ or theNew Commandment or theNew Covenant). A third iscanon law which is the internalecclesiastical law governing theRoman Catholic Church, theEastern Orthodox churches, and theAnglican Communion of churches.[131] The way that such church law islegislated, interpreted and at timesadjudicated varies widely among these three bodies of churches. In all three traditions, a canon was initially a rule adopted by acouncil (From Greekkanon / κανών,Hebrew kaneh / קנה, for rule, standard, or measure); these canons formed the foundation of canon law.
Christian ethics in general has tended to stress the need forgrace,mercy, andforgiveness because of human weakness and developed whileEarly Christians were subjects of theRoman Empire. From the time Nero blamed Christians for setting Rome ablaze (64 AD) untilGalerius (311 AD), persecutions against Christians erupted periodically. Consequently, Early Christian ethics included discussions of how believers should relate to Roman authority and to the empire.
Under theEmperor Constantine I (312–337), Christianity became a legal religion. While some scholars debate whether Constantine's conversion to Christianity was authentic or simply matter of political expediency,Constantine's decree made the empire safe for Christian practice and belief. Consequently, issues of Christian doctrine, ethics and church practice were debated openly, see for example theFirst Council of Nicaea and theFirst seven Ecumenical Councils. By the time ofTheodosius I (379–395), Christianity had become thestate religion of the empire. With Christianity in power, ethical concerns broaden and included discussions of the proper role of the state.
Render unto Caesar... is the beginning of a phrase attributed to Jesus in thesynoptic gospels which reads in full, "Render unto Caesar the things which are Caesar's, and unto God the things that are God's". This phrase has become a widely quoted summary of the relationship between Christianity and secular authority. The gospels say that when Jesus gave his response, his interrogators "marvelled, and left him, and went their way." Time has not resolved an ambiguity in this phrase, and people continue to interpret this passage to support various positions that are poles apart. The traditional division, carefully determined, in Christian thought is thestate andchurch have separatespheres of influence.
Thomas Aquinas thoroughly discussed thathuman law ispositive law which means that it isnatural law applied by governments to societies. All human laws were to be judged by their conformity to the natural law. An unjust law was in a sense no law at all. At this point, the natural law was not only used to pass judgment on the moral worth of various laws, but also to determine what the law said in the first place. This could result in some tension.[132] Late ecclesiastical writers followed in his footsteps.
Christian democracy is a political ideology that seeks to apply Christian principles to public policy. It emerged in 19th-century Europe, largely under the influence ofCatholic social teaching. In a number of countries, the democracy's Christian ethos has been diluted bysecularisation. In practice, Christian democracy is often consideredconservative on cultural, social and moral issues andprogressive on fiscal and economic issues. In places, where their opponents have traditionally been secularistsocialists andsocial democrats, Christian democratic parties are moderatelyconservative, whereas in other cultural and political environments they can lean to the left.
Attitudes and beliefs about the roles and responsibilities ofwomen in Christianity vary considerably today as they have throughout the last two millennia—evolving along with or counter to the societies in which Christians have lived. The Bible and Christianity historically have been interpreted as excluding women from church leadership and placing them in submissive roles in marriage. Male leadership has been assumed in the church and within marriage, society and government.[133]
Some contemporary writers describe the role of women in the life of the church as having been downplayed, overlooked, or denied throughout much of Christian history.Paradigm shifts in gender roles in society and also many churches has inspired reevaluation by many Christians of some long-held attitudes to the contrary.Christian egalitarians have increasingly argued for equal roles for men and women inmarriage, as well as for theordination of women to theclergy. Contemporary conservatives meanwhile have reasserted what has been termed a "complementarian" position, promoting the traditional belief that theBible ordains different roles and responsibilities for women and men in the Church and family.[134]
"Christendom" [...] means literally the dominion or sovereignty of the Christian religion.
{{cite book}}:ISBN / Date incompatibility (help){{cite book}}:ISBN / Date incompatibility (help)The ante-Nicene age ... is the natural transition from the Apostolic age to the Nicene age.
The whole issue had, in fact, become confused with the confusion of functions of the Church and State. In the view of the Church of England the ultimate governance of the Christian community, in things spiritual and temporal, was vested not in the clergy but in the "Christian prince" as the vicegerent of God.
Definitions from Wiktionary
Media from Commons
News from Wikinews
Quotations from Wikiquote
Texts from Wikisource
Textbooks from Wikibooks
Resources from Wikiversity| Bible (Scriptures) | |||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Foundations | |||||||||
| History (timeline) (spread) |
| ||||||||
| Denominations (list,members) |
| ||||||||
| Theology |
| ||||||||
| Philosophy | |||||||||
| Other features |
| ||||||||
