Achoir (/ˈkwaɪər/KWIRE), also known as achorale orchorus (from Latinchorus, meaning'a dance in a circle'), is amusical ensemble of singers.Choral music, in turn, is themusic written specifically for such an ensemble to perform or in other words is the music performed by the ensemble. Choirs may perform music from theclassical music repertoire, which spans from themedieval era to the present, orpopular music repertoire. Most choirs are led by aconductor, who leads the performances with arm, hand, and facial gestures.
The termchoir is very often applied to groups affiliated with a church (whether or not they actually occupy thequire), whereas achorus performs in theatres or concert halls, but this distinction is not rigid. Choirs may sing without instruments, or accompanied by apiano, accordion,pipe organ, a small ensemble, or anorchestra.
A choir can be a subset of an ensemble; thus one speaks of the "woodwind choir" of an orchestra, or different "choirs" of voices or instruments in apolychoral composition. In typical 18th century to 21st centuryoratorios andmasses, 'chorus' or 'choir' implies that there is more than one singer per part, in contrast to the quartet of soloists also featured in these works.
Choirs are often led by aconductor, choirmaster or choir director. Most often, choirs consist of four sections intended to sing in four-part harmony, but there is no limit to the number of possible parts as long as there is a singer available to sing the part. For instance,Thomas Tallis wrote a 40-partmotet entitledSpem in alium, for eight choirs of five parts each; whileKrzysztof Penderecki'sStabat Mater is for three choirs of 16 voices each, a total of 48 parts. Other than four, the most common number of parts are three, five, six, and eight.
Choirs can sing with or without instrumental accompaniment. Singing without accompaniment is usually calleda cappella singing (although theAmerican Choral Directors Association[1] discourages this usage in favor of "unaccompanied", since a cappella denotes singing "as in the chapel" and much unaccompanied music today issecular). Accompanying instruments vary widely, from only one instrument (a piano or pipe organ) to a fullorchestra of 70 to 100 musicians; for rehearsals apiano ororgan accompaniment is often used, even if a different instrumentation is planned for performance, or if the choir is rehearsing unaccompanied music. With the new prevalence of electronic devices, small groups can use these together with learning tracks for both group rehearsals and private practice.
Many choirs perform in various locations, such as churches, opera houses, schools, or village halls. In some cases, choirs come together to form a single "massed choir" for a special concert. In these instances, they present a series of songs or musical works to celebrate and entertain others.
Conducting is the art of directing amusical performance, such as a choralconcert, by way of visible gestures with the hands, arms, face and head. The primary duties of the conductor or choirmaster are to unifyperformers, set thetempo, execute clear preparations and beats (meter), and to listen critically and shape the sound of the ensemble.[2]
In most choirs, the same individual acts as the musical director (responsible for deciding the repertoire and engaging soloists and accompanists), chorusmaster (or répétiteur) (responsible for training and rehearsing the singers), and conductor (responsible for directing the performance). However, these roles may be divided, especially when the choir is combined with other forces, for example inopera.
The conductor or choral director typically stands on a raised platform, and may or may not use abaton; using a baton gives the conductor's gestures greater visibility, but many choral conductors prefer conducting with their hands for greater expressiveness, particularly when working with a smaller ensemble. In the 2010s, most conductors do not play an instrument when conducting, although in earlier periods ofclassical music history, leading an ensemble while playing an instrument was common. InBaroque music from the 1600s to the 1750s, conductors performing in the 2010s may lead an ensemble while playing aharpsichord or the violin (seeConcertmaster). Conducting while playing apiano may also be done withmusical theatrepit orchestras. Communication is typically non-verbal during a performance (this is strictly the case inart music, but in jazzbig bands or large pop ensembles, there may be occasional spoken instructions). However, inrehearsals, the conductor will often give verbal instructions to the ensemble, since the conductor generally also serves as an artistic director who crafts the ensemble's interpretation of the music.
Conductors act as guides to the choirs they conduct. They choose the works to be performed and study theirscores, to which they may make certain adjustments (e.g., regarding tempo, repetitions of sections, assignment of vocal solos, etc.), work out their interpretation, and relay their vision to the singers. Choral conductors may also have to conduct instrumental ensembles such asorchestras if the choir is singing a piece for choir and orchestra. They may also attend to organizational matters, such as scheduling rehearsals,[3] planning a concert season, hearingauditions, and promoting their ensemble in the media.
Historically, the sung repertoire divides intosacred or religious music andsecular music. While much religious music has been written with concert performance in mind, its origin lies in its role within the context ofliturgy.
Egyptian Alexandria Jewish choir of Rabbin Moshe Cohen at Samuel Menashe synagogue,Alexandria, Egypt
Like post-Diaspora Jews during the first centuries, it was widely agreed by Christians that musical instruments should be excluded from worship. The consensus among early writers was that divine worship should privilege the unaccompanied human voice.[4]
MostEastern Orthodox Christian churches, some American Protestant groups, and traditional Jewishsynagogues do not accompany their songs with musical instruments. In churches of theWestern Rite the accompanying instrument is usually the organ, although incolonial America, theMoravian Church used groups of strings and winds. Many churches that use a contemporary worship format use a small amplified band to accompany the singing, and Roman Catholic Churches may use, at their discretion, additional orchestral accompaniment.
In addition to leading the singing in which thecongregation participates, such ashymns and service music, some church choirs sing full liturgies, includingpropers (introit, gradual, communion antiphons appropriate for the different times of theliturgical year). InChristianity, chief among these are theEvangelical Lutheran,Anglican andRoman Catholic churches; far more common, however, is the performance ofanthems ormotets at designated times in the service. In the Catholic Church, theSecond Vatican Council'sConstitution on the Sacred Liturgy confirmed that choirs featured among those who "exercise a genuine liturgical function" within services such as the Mass.[5] Singing in a congregation contributes to the effaciousness of the ritual. In Christianity, singing has played a significant role in the early Church, not only in authorising certain hymns but also providing the faithful with true Christian spirit.[6]
One of the main classifications of choirs is by gender and age since these factors have traditionally been thought to affect how a choir sounds[7] and what music it performs.[8] The types are listed here in approximate descending order of prevalence at the professional and advanced amateur or semi-professional levels.
Adult mixed choir (with male and female voices) is perhaps the most common and dominant type, usually consisting ofsoprano,alto,tenor, andbass voices, often abbreviated asSATB.[9] Often one or more voices is divided into two, e.g., SSAATTBB, where each voice is divided into two parts, and SATBSATB, where the choir is divided into two semi-independent four-part choirs. Occasionallybaritone voice is also used (e.g., SATBarB), often sung by the higher basses. In smaller choirs with fewer men, SAB, or soprano, alto, and baritone arrangements allow the few men to share the role of both the tenor and bass in a single part and altos may also sing the tenor part.
Male choir (or choir of men & boys) with the same SATB voicing as a mixed choir, but with boys singing the upper part (often calledtrebles orboy sopranos) and men singing alto (infalsetto), also known ascountertenors. This format was until recently typical of the British cathedral choir (e.g.King's College,St Paul's,Westminster Abbey). However, all cathedrals now accept women and by 2019 female choristers outnumbered males in English cathedral choirs.[10]
Men's chorus (Male voice choir,Männerchor), a choir of adult men, low voices only, usually consisting of two tenors, baritone, and bass, often abbreviated as TTBB (or ATBB if the upper part singsfalsetto in alto range). ATBB may be seen in somebarbershop quartet music.
Boys' choir, a choir of boys, typically singing SSA orSSAA, sometimes including a cambiata/tenor part for boys/young men whose voices are changing and a baritone part for boys/young men whose voices have changed.
Women's choir, a choir of adult women, high voices only, usually consisting of soprano and alto voices, two parts in each, often abbreviated as SSAA, or as soprano I, soprano II, and alto, abbreviated SSA. If all singers are young, the term "girls' choir" is used instead.
Children's mixed choir (with male and female voices), often two-part SA or three-part SSA, sometimes more voices.
The all-female and mixed children's choirs tend to be professionally less prevalent than the high voiced boys' choirs, the lower voiced men's choruses, or the full SATB choirs.[9] This is due to some extent to lack of scholarships and other types of funding, and a lack of professional opportunities for women such as that of being lay clerks or musical directors.[8]
Choirs are also categorized by the institutions in which they operate:
Lambrook School choir in the 1960s, a typical boys' school choir of the time
In the United States, middle schools and high schools often offer choir as a class or activity. Some choirs participate in competitions. One kind of choir popular in high schools isshow choir. During middle school and high school students' voices are changing. Although girls experiencevoice change, it is much more significant in boys. A lot of literature in music education has been focused on how male voice change works and how to help adolescent male singers.[12] Research done by John Cooksey categorizes male voice change into five stages, and most middle school boys are in the early stages of change.[12] The vocal range of male and female students may be limited while their voice is changing, and choir teachers must be able to adapt, which can be a challenge to teaching this age range.[13]
Nationally, male students are enrolled in choir at much lower numbers than their female students.[14] The music education field has had a longtime interest in the "missing males" in music programs.[14] Speculation as to why there are not as many boys in choir, and possible solutions vary widely. One researcher found that boys who enjoy choir in middle school may not always go on to high school choir because it simply does not fit into their schedules.[15] Some research speculates that one reason that boys' participation in choir is so low is because the U.S. does not encourage male singers.[16] Often, schools will have a women's choir, which helps the balance issues mixed choirs face by taking on extra female singers. However, without a men's choir also, this can make the problem worse by not giving boys as many opportunities to sing as girls.[14] Other researchers have noted that having an ensemble, or a workshop dedicated to male singers, can help with their confidence and singing abilities.[15][16] British cathedral choirs are usually made from pupils enrolled in schools.
One possible layoutChoir in front of the orchestra
There are various schools of thought regarding how the various sections should be arranged on stage. It is the conductor's decision on where the different voice types are placed. In symphonic choirs it is common (though by no means universal) to order the choir behind the orchestra from highest to lowest voices from left to right, corresponding to the typical string layout. Ina cappella or piano-accompanied situations it is not unusual for the men to be in the back and the women in front; some conductors prefer to place the basses behind the sopranos, arguing that the outer voices need to tune to each other.
More experienced choirs may sing with the voices all mixed. Sometimes singers of the same voice are grouped in pairs or threes. Proponents of this method argue that it makes it easier for each individual singer to hear and tune to the other parts, but it requires more independence from each singer. Opponents argue that this method loses the spatial separation of individual voice lines, an otherwise valuable feature for the audience, and that it eliminates sectional resonance, which lessens the effective volume of the chorus. For music with double (or multiple) choirs, usually the members of each choir are together, sometimes significantly separated, especially in performances of 16th-century music (such as works in theVenetian polychoral style). Some composers actually specify that choirs should be separated, such as inBenjamin Britten'sWar Requiem. Some composers use separated choirs to create "antiphonal" effects, in which one choir seems to "answer" the other choir in a musical dialogue.
Consideration is also given to the spacing of the singers. Studies have found that not only the actual formation, but the amount of space (both laterally and circumambiently) affects the perception of sound by choristers and auditors.[17]
Relief, now inAthens, showingDionysus with actresses (possibly fromThe Bacchae) carrying masks and drums
The origins of choral music are found intraditional music, as singing in big groups is extremely widely spread in traditional cultures (both singing in one part, or inunison, like in Ancient Greece, as well as singing in parts, or inharmony, like in contemporary European choral music).[18]
Of theRoman drama's music a single line ofTerence surfaced in the 18th century. However, musicologistThomas J. Mathiesen comments that it is no longer believed to be authentic.[19]
The earliest notated music of western Europe isGregorian chant, along with a few other types of chant which were later subsumed (or sometimes suppressed) by the Catholic Church. This tradition of unison choir singing lasted from sometime between the times ofSt. Ambrose (4th century) andGregory the Great (6th century) up to the present. During the later Middle Ages, a new type of singing involving multiple melodic parts, calledorganum, became predominant for certain functions, but initially thispolyphony was only sung by soloists. Further developments of this technique includedclausulae,conductus and themotet (most notably theisorhythmic motet), which, unlike theRenaissance motet, describes a composition with different texts sung simultaneously in different voices. The first evidence of polyphony with more than one singer per part comes in theOld Hall Manuscript (1420, though containing music from the late 14th century), in which there are apparentdivisi, one part dividing into two simultaneously sounding notes.
During theRenaissance, sacred choral music was the principal type of formally notated music in Western Europe. Throughout the era, hundreds ofmasses andmotets (as well as various other forms) were composed fora cappella choir, though there is some dispute over the role of instruments during certain periods and in certain areas. Some of the better-known composers of this time includeGuillaume Dufay,Josquin des Prez,Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina,John Dunstable, andWilliam Byrd; the glories of Renaissancepolyphony were choral, sung by choirs of great skill and distinction all over Europe. Choral music from this period continues to be popular with[20] many choirs throughout the world today.
Themadrigal, apartsong conceived for amateurs to sing in achamber setting, originated at this period. Although madrigals were initially dramatic settings of unrequited-love poetry or mythological stories in Italy, they were imported into England and merged with the more dancelikeballetto, celebrating carefree songs of the seasons, or eating and drinking. To most English speakers, the wordmadrigal now refers to the latter, rather than to madrigals proper, which refers to a poetic form of lines consisting of seven and eleven syllables each.
The interaction of sung voices in Renaissance polyphony influenced Western music for centuries. Composers are routinely trained in the "Palestrina style" to this day, especially as codified by the 18th century music theoristJohann Joseph Fux. Composers of the early 20th century also wrote in Renaissance-inspired styles.Herbert Howells wrote aMass in the Dorian mode entirely in strict Renaissance style, andRalph Vaughan Williams'sMass in G minor is an extension of this style.Anton Webern wrote his dissertation on theChoralis Constantinus ofHeinrich Isaac and the contrapuntal techniques of hisserial music may be informed by this study.
TheBaroque period in music is associated with the development around 1600 of thefigured bass and thebasso continuo system. The figured bass part was performed by the basso continuo group, which at minimum included a chord-playing instrument (e.g.,pipe organ,harpsichord,lute) and a bass instrument (e.g.,violone). Baroque vocal music explored dramatic implications in the realm of solo vocal music such as themonodies of theFlorentine Camerata and the development of earlyopera. This innovation was in fact an extension of established practice of accompanying choral music at the organ, either from a skeletal reduced score (from which otherwise lost pieces can sometimes be reconstructed) or from abasso seguente, a part on a single staff containing the lowest sounding part (the bass part).
A new genre was the vocalstile concertato, combining voices and instruments; its origins may be sought in thepolychoral music of theVenetian school.Claudio Monteverdi (1567–1643) brought it to perfection with hisVespers and his Eighth Book of Madrigals, which call for great virtuosity on the part of singers and instruments alike. (His Fifth Book includes abasso continuo "for harpsichord or lute".) His pupilHeinrich Schütz (1585–1672) (who had earlier studied withGiovanni Gabrieli) introduced the new style to Germany. Alongside the new music of theseconda pratica, contrapuntal motets in thestile antico or old style continued to be written well into the 19th century. Choirs at this time were usually quite small and that singers could beclassified as suited to church or to chamber singing. Monteverdi, himself a singer, is documented as taking part in performances of his Magnificat with one voice per part.[21]
Independent instrumental accompaniment opened up new possibilities for choral music.Verse anthems alternated accompanied solos with choral sections; the best-known composers of this genre wereOrlando Gibbons andHenry Purcell.Grands motets (such as those ofLully andDelalande) separated these sections into separate movements.Oratorios (of whichGiacomo Carissimi was a pioneer) extended this concept into concert-length works, usually based on Biblical or moral stories.
A pinnacle of baroque choral music, (particularly oratorio), may be found inGeorge Frideric Handel's works, notablyMessiah andIsrael in Egypt. While the modern chorus of hundreds had to await the growth of Choral Societies and his centennial commemoration concert, we find Handel already using a variety of performing forces, from the soloists of theChandos Anthems to larger groups (whose proportions are still quite different from modern orchestra choruses):
Lutheran composers wrote instrumentally accompaniedcantatas, often based onchoraletunes. Substantial late 17th-century sacred choral works in the emerging German tradition exist (the cantatas ofDietrich Buxtehude being a prime example), though the Lutheran church cantata did not assume its more codified, recognizable form until the early 18th century.Georg Philipp Telemann (based in Frankfurt) wrote over 1000 cantatas, many of which were engraved and published (e.g. hisHarmonische Gottesdienst) andChristoph Graupner (based in Darmstadt) over 1400. The cantatas ofJohann Sebastian Bach (1685–1750) are perhaps the most recognizable (and often-performed) contribution to this repertoire: his obituary mentions five complete cycles ofhis cantatas, of which three, comprising some 200 works, are known today, in addition tomotets. Bach himself rarely used the term cantata. Motet refers to his church music without orchestra accompaniment, but instruments playingcolla parte with the voices. His works with accompaniment consists of hisPassions,Masses, theMagnificat and the cantatas.
A point of hot controversy today is the so-called "Rifkin hypothesis," which re-examines the famous "Entwurff" Bach's 1730 memo to theLeipzig City Council (A Short but Most Necessary Draft for a Well Appointed Church Music) calling for at least 12 singers. In light of Bach's responsibility to provide music to four churches and be able to perform double choir compositions with a substitute for each voice,Joshua Rifkin concludes that Bach's music was normally written withone voice per part in mind. A few sets of original performing parts includeripieni who reinforce rather than slavishly double the vocal quartet.
Composers of the late 18th century became fascinated with the new possibilities of the symphony and other instrumental music, and generally neglected choral music.Mozart's mostly sacred choral works stand out as some of his greatest (such as the "Great" Mass in C minor andRequiem in D minor, the latter of which is highly regarded).Haydn became more interested in choral music near the end of his life following his visits to England in the 1790s, when he heard various Handel oratorios performed by large forces; he wrote a series of masses beginning in 1797 and his two great oratoriosThe Creation andThe Seasons.Beethoven wrote only two masses, both intended for liturgical use, although hisMissa solemnis is probably suitable only for the grandest ceremonies due to its length, difficulty and large-scale scoring. He also pioneered the use of chorus as part of symphonic texture with hisNinth Symphony andChoral Fantasia.
In the 19th century, sacred music escaped from the church and leaped onto the concert stage, with large sacred works unsuitable for church use, such asBerlioz'sTe Deum andRequiem, andBrahms'sEin deutsches Requiem.Rossini'sStabat mater,Schubert's masses, andVerdi'sRequiem also exploited the grandeur offered by instrumental accompaniment. Oratorios also continued to be written, clearly influenced by Handel's models. Berlioz'sL'enfance du Christ andMendelssohn'sElijah andSt Paul are in the category. Schubert, Mendelssohn, and Brahms also wrote secular cantatas, the best known of which are Brahms'sSchicksalslied andNänie.
A few composers developed a cappella music, especiallyBruckner, whose masses and motets startlingly juxtapose Renaissance counterpoint with chromatic harmony. Mendelssohn and Brahms also wrote significant a cappella motets. The amateur chorus (beginning chiefly as a social outlet) began to receive serious consideration as a compositional venue for the part-songs of Schubert,Schumann, Mendelssohn, Brahms, and others. These 'singing clubs' were often for women or men separately, and the music was typically in four-part (hence the name "part-song") and either a cappella or with simple instrumentation. At the same time, theCecilian movement attempted a restoration of the pure Renaissance style in Catholic churches.
In the United States, development of mixed choirs was pioneered by groups such asThe St. Olaf Choir andWestminster Choir College. These groups were characterized by arrangements of hymns and other sacred works of christian nature which helped define the choral sound of the United States for most of the 20th century. Secular choral music in the United States was popularized by groups such as theDale Warland Singers throughout the late 20th century.
The Big Choral Census online survey was established to find out how many choirs there were in the UK, of what type, with how many members, singing what type of music and with what sort of funding. Results estimated that there were some 40,000 choral groups operating in the UK and over 2 million people singing regularly in a choir. Over 30 percent of the groups listed described themselves a community choirs, half of the choirs listed sing contemporary music although singing classical music is still popular. Most choirs are self funding. It is thought that the increase in popularity of singing together in groups has been fed to some extent in the UK by TV programmes such asGareth Malone's 'The Choir'.[22] In 2017, the Purwa Caraka Music Studio Choir of Indonesia began the trend when they covered children's songs in a choral arrangement for the filmSurat Kecil untuk Tuhan.[23]
Apart from their roles in liturgy and entertainment, choirs and choruses may also have social-service functions,[24] including for mental health treatment[25] or as therapy forhomeless and disadvantaged people, like theChoir of Hard Knocks[26] or for special groups such asMilitary Wives.
^Daugherty, J. "Spacing, Formation, and Choral Sound: Preferences and Perceptions of Auditors and Choristers."Journal of Research in Music Education. Vol. 47, Num. 3. 1999.
^Hilliard, R. E. (2002). "The San Francisco Gay Men's Chorus: A historical perspective on the role of a chorus as a social service".Journal of Gay and Lesbian Social Services.14 (3):79–94.doi:10.1300/J041v14n03_04.S2CID140495373.This descriptive study is an investigation into the history of the formation of the nation's first gay men's chorus, and its relevance to the lesbigay community as a social service.
