Chinese surnames are used byHan Chinese andSinicized ethnic groups inGreater China,Korea,Vietnam and amongoverseas Chinese communities around the world such asSingapore andMalaysia. WrittenChinese names begin with surnames, unlike theWestern tradition in which surnames are written last. Around 2,000 Han Chinese surnames are currently in use, but the great proportion of Han Chinese people use only a relatively small number of these surnames; 19 surnames are used by around half of the Han Chinese people, while 100 surnames are used by around 87% of the population.[1][2] A report in 2019 gives themost common Chinese surnames asWang andLi, each shared by over 100 million people in China.[3] The remaining eight of the top ten most common Chinese surnames areZhang,Liu,Chen,Yang,Huang,Zhao,Wu andZhou.[4]
Two distinct types of Chinese surnames existed in ancient China, namelyxing (Chinese:姓;pinyin:xìng) ancestral clan names andshi (Chinese:氏;pinyin:shì) branch lineage names. Later, the two terms were used interchangeably, and in the present day,xing refers to the surname andshi may refer either the clan or maiden name. The two terms may also be used together asxingshi for family names or surnames. Most Chinese surnames (xing) in current use were originallyshi. The earliestxing surname might bematrilinear, but Han Chinese family name has been exclusivelypatrilineal for a couple of millennia, passing from father to children. This system of patrilineal surnames is unusual in the world in its long period of continuity and depth ofwritten history, and Chinese people may view their surnames as part of their shared kinship and Han Chinese identity.[5] Women do not normally change their surnames upon marriage, except sometimes in places with more western influences such asHong Kong. Traditionally Chinese surnames have beenexogamous in that people tend to marry those with different surnames.[6][7]
The most common Chinese surnames were compiled in theSong dynasty workHundred Family Surnames, which lists over 400 names. The colloquial expressionslǎobǎixìng (老百姓; lit. "old hundred surnames") andbǎixìng (wikt:百姓, lit. "hundred surnames") are used in Chinese to mean "ordinary folks", "the people", or "commoners".
Chinese surnames have a history of over 3,000 years. Chinese mythology, however, reaches back further to the legendary figureFuxi (with the surname Feng), who was said to have established the system of Chinese surnames to distinguish different families and prevent marriage of people with the same family names.[8] Prior to theWarring States period (fifth century BC), only the ruling families and the aristocratic elite had surnames. Historically there was a difference between ancestral clan names orxing (姓) and branch lineage names orshi (氏).Xing may be the more ancient surname that referred to the ancestral tribe or clan, whileshi denoted a branch of the tribe or clan. For example, the ancestors of theShang hadZi (子) asxing, but the descendants were subdivided into numerousshi includingYin (殷),Song (宋), Kong (空),Tong (同) and others.[1] The distinction between the two began to be blurred by theWarring States period. During theQin dynasty, name usage was standardised, commoners started to acquire a surname orxing, and theshi also becamexing.[9] By theHan dynasty, families only hadxing orxing-shi. The great majority of Han Chinese surnames (now calledxing orxingshi) that survive to modern times have their roots inshi rather than the ancientxing.[1]
In modern usage,xing is the surname, but the wordshi survives as a word to refer to the clan. The termshi may be appended to the surname of a person; for example, a man with the Zhang surname may be referred to as Zhang-shi instead of his full name. It is used in particular for the paternal surname of a married woman, therefore in this caseshi meansmaiden name, which a Chinese woman would continue to use after marriage.[9][10]
The ancientxing were surnames held by thenoble clans. They generally contain a "female" (Chinese:女;pinyin:nǚ)radical, for exampleJi (姬),Jiang (姜),Yao (姚) andYíng (嬴). This is taken as evidence that they originated frommatriarchal societies based onmaternal lineages. The character forxing itself is composed of a female radical and the character for "give birth" (生,shēng).[11]Xing is believed to have been originally transmitted through women of noble birth, while noble men haveshi.[1]
Scholars such asEdwin G. Pulleyblank, however, are unconvinced by the matriarchy theory of Chinese surnames due to a lack of independent evidence. An alternative hypothesis has been proposed, suggesting that the use of female radical inxing may have arisen from the clanexogamy system used during theZhou dynasty (the wordsxing andshi also did not exist in the Shang dynastyoracle bones). In ancient times, people of the samexing were not permitted to marry each other and a woman married into an aristocratic clan needed to be of a different name.[12] Based on observation of the evolution of characters in oracular scripture from theShang dynasty through theZhou: the 女 radical seems to appear during the Zhou period next to Shangsinograms indicating a clan or a tribe. This combination seems to designate specifically a female and could mean "lady of such or such clan". The structure of thexing sinogram could reflect the fact that in the royal court of Zhou, at least in the beginning, only females (wives married into the Zhou family from other clans) were called by their birth clan name, while the men were usually designated by their title or fief.
While people of the samexing were not permitted to marry each other, those with the sameshi can. By the Han dynasty when everyone hadxing and the surname was transmitted paternally, the practice continued, but it had changed to marriage between families of men on the paternal side being prohibited, but not on the maternal side.[1]
Prior to theQin dynasty (3rd century BC), China was largely afengjian (feudal) society. As fiefdoms were divided and subdivided among descendants, so additional sub-surnames known asshi were created to distinguish between noble lineages according to seniority, though in theory they shared the same ancestor. In this way, a nobleman would hold ashi and axing.Xing, however, was more important thanshi.
The difference betweenxing andshi became blurred in theSpring and Autumn period starting with women. For example:Chunqiu referred to Duke Xuan ofLu's consort Lady Mujiang (穆姜), who bore the clan name (姓,xing) Jiang, asJiangshi 姜氏, "[lady of the] Jiangshi" (!).[12]
After the states of China were unified byQin Shi Huang in 221 BC, surnames gradually spread to the lower classes. Most surnames that survive to the present day were originallyshi.
According to the chapter on surnames in the Han dynasty workFengsu Tong – Xingshi Pian (風俗通姓氏篇), there are 9 origins of Chinese surnames: dynasty names, posthumous titles, ranks of nobility, state names, official positions, style names, places of residence, occupations, and events.[1] Modern scholars such asKiang Kang-Hu proposed that there are 18 sources from which Chinese surnames may be derived,[13] while others suggested at least 24.[14] These may be names associated with a ruling dynasty such as the various titles and names of rulers, nobility and dynasty, or they may be place names of various territories, districts, towns, villages, and specific locations, the title of official posts or occupations, or names of objects, or they may be derived from the names of family members or clans, and in a few cases, names of contempt given by a ruler.[15]
The following are some of the common sources:
Many also changed their surnames throughout history for a number of reasons.
Chinese surnames or family names are writtenbefore the first name orgiven name.[20] Therefore, someone named Wei (伟) from theZhang (张) family is called "Zhang Wei" (张伟) and not "Wei Zhang". Chinese women generally retain their maiden name and use their name unchanged after marriage, but in modern times in some communities, some women may choose to attach their husband's surname to the front.[21] Chinese surname ispatrilinear where the father's surname is passed on to his children, but more recently some people have opted to use both parents' surnames; although this practice has increased in recent times, it is still relatively uncommon in China, with those who adopted both parents' surnames numbering at only 1.1 million in 2018 (up from 118,000 in 1990).[3]
Some Chinese outside of mainland China, particularly those from the Chinese immigrant communities around the world and those who have acquired a Christian or Western first name, have adopted the Western convention when giving their name in English, placing their surname last. Examples of those commonly known in the West includeJackie Chan (Chinese name Chan Kong-sang),Jimmy Choo (Chinese name Choo Yeang Keat), andYo-Yo Ma. Those with a Western first name can write their name in English in various ways – some may add the Western first name in front and the Chinese given name last (the surname is therefore in the middle), or fully Westernised with both the Western and Chinese given names before the Chinese surname.[21] Examples includeCarrie Lam, originally named Cheng Yuet-ngor (Cheng is the surname), but who has acquired her husband's surname Lam and a Western first name as Carrie Lam Cheng Yuet-ngor.
Due to the different spelling conventions and dialects as well as the different spelling preferences in the various countries these Chinese find themselves in, many people of the same Chinese surname can appear differently when written in English, for example theLin surname (林) may also appear as Lam (Cantonese) or Lim (Hokkien). Some Chinese surnames that appear to be the same written in English may also be different in Chinese due to different characters having the same or similar pronunciations, dialectal differences, or non-standard romanizations (see section on variation in romanization below).[22][23]
| Regions with high concentration of particular surnames | |
|---|---|
| Region | Surnames |
| Liaoning | Zhang (张/張),Jiang (江) |
| Guangdong | Liang/Leung (梁),Luo (罗/羅),Kuang (邝/鄺), Chan/Chen (陈/陳),Huang/Wong (黄/黃) |
| Guangxi | Liang (梁),Lu (陆/陸),Zhang/Chong (章),Huang (黄/黃) |
| Fujian | Zheng (郑/鄭),Lin (林),Huang (黄/黃),Xǔ (许/許),Xie (谢/謝), |
| Hainan | Fú (符) |
| Anhui | Wang (汪) |
| Jiangsu | Xú (徐),Zhu (朱) |
| Shanghai | Wang (王),Yang (杨/楊) |
| Zhejiang | Mao (毛),Shen (沈) |
| Jiangxi | Hu (胡) |
| Hubei | Hu (胡) |
| Hunan | Tan/Tom (谭/譚),Huang (黄/黃) |
| Sichuan | He (何),Deng (邓/鄧) |
| Guizhou | Wu (吴/吳) |
| Yunnan | Yang (杨/楊) |
| Henan | Cheng (程) |
| Gansu | Gao (高) |
| Ningxia | Wan (万/萬) |
| Shaanxi | Xue (薛) |
| Qinghai | Bao (鲍/鮑) |
| Xinjiang | Ma (马/馬) |
| Shandong | Kong (孔) |
| Shanxi | Dong (董) andGuo (郭) |
| Inner Mongolia | Pan (潘) |
| Northeast China | Yu (于) |
Surnames are not evenly distributed throughout China's geography. In northern China, Wáng (王) is the most common surname, being shared by 9.9% of the population. Next are Lǐ (李), Zhāng (张/張) and Liú (刘/劉). In the south, Chén (陈/陳) is the most common, being shared by 10.6% of the population. Next are Lǐ (李), Huáng (黄/黃), Lín (林) and Zhāng (张/張). Around the major crossing points of theYangzi River, the most common surname is Lĭ (李), taking up 7.7%, followed by Wáng (王), Zhāng (张/張), Chan/Chén (陈/陳) and Liú (刘/劉).
A 1987 study showed over 450 family names in common use in Beijing, but there were fewer than 300 family names inFujian.[citation needed] Furthermore, a 2012 study found that there was the lowest amount ofisonymy in surnames among the population around middle and lower reaches ofYangtze River both on the provincial and county levels.[24] Additionally, it was found that counties with the highest values of isonymy were distributed in the provinces with high proportions of ethnic minorities. According to thedendrogram of surname distances, several clusters could be identified. Most provinces in a cluster wereconterminous with one another. The one exception to this pattern could be explained bydemic migration observed where the Han Chinese migrated toNortheastern China.
A study bygeneticistYuan Yida has found that of all the people with a particular surname, there tends to be a population concentration in a certain province,[25] as tabulated to the right. It does not show, however, the most common surnames in any one province.
The 55th most common family name "Xiào" (肖) appears to be very rare in Hong Kong. This is explained by the fact Hong Kong usestraditional Chinese characters rather thansimplified Chinese characters. Originally, the surname蕭 (Xiāo) was rather common while the surname 肖 (Xiào) was extremely rare, if not non-existent (it is mentioned only sporadically in historical texts). The first round of simplification in 1956 simplified 蕭 into萧, keeping 蕭/萧 and 肖 distinct. However thesecond-round in 1977, which has long been abolished, merged 萧 and 肖 into 肖. Despite the retraction of the second round, some people have kept 肖 as their surname, so that there are now two separate surnames, 萧 and 肖.[citation needed]
Chén (陈/陳) is perhaps the most common surname inHong Kong andMacau, where it is romanized as Chan. It is themost common Chinese surname inSingapore, where it is usually romanized as Tan, and is also common inTaiwan, where it is romanized as Chén.
Fāng (方), which is only the 47th most common overall, is much more common in San Francisco's Chinatown in the United States, although the surname is more often than not romanized as Fong, as based on theYue dialect. As with the concentration of family names, this can also be explained statistically, as a person with an uncommon name moving to an unsettled area and leaving his family name to large number of descendants.[citation needed]
After theSong dynasty, surname distributions in China largely settled down.[citation needed] TheKuàng (邝/鄺) family, for example, migrated from the northern capital and settled inGuangdong after the Song dynasty revolts.[citation needed] Villages are often made up of a singlepatrilineage with individuals having the same surname, often with a common male ancestor. They usually intermarry with others from nearby villages, creating genetic clusters.
Of the thousands of surnames which have been identified from historical texts prior to the modern era, most have either been lost (seeextinction of family names) or simplified. Historically there are close to 12,000 surnames recorded including those from non-Han Chinese ethnic groups, of which only about 3,100 are in current use,[26] a factor of almost 4:1 (about 75%) reduction. A 2019 figure however put the total number of Chinese family names at 6,150.[3] Of Han Chinese surnames, the largest number ever recorded was 6,363 (3,730 single-character surnames, 2,633 multiple-character surnames), around 2,000 of which are still in use.[1] Chinese Surname extinction is due to various factors, such as people taking the names of their rulers, orthographic simplifications, taboos against using characters from an emperor's name, and others. A recent example of near surname extinction is the rare surname Shan (𢒉).[27] The character may not be displayed on computer systems used by government officials, and people born after the system change as well as people who want to avoid possible problems changed their name to another character such as Xian (冼). The name is still used by the older people, but some people from the village are concerned that future generations will forget their name origin.[27]
While new names have arisen for various reasons, this has been outweighed by old names disappearing. The most significant factor affecting the surname frequency is other ethnic groups identifying as Han and adopting Han names.[28] In recent centuries some two-character surnames have often dropped a character. Since the founding of the People's Republic of China, moreover, some surnames have been graphically simplified.
Although there are thousands of Chinese family names, the100 most common, which together make up less than 5% of those in existence, are shared by 85% of the population. The three most common surnames in Mainland China areLi,Wang andZhang, which make up 7.9%, 7.4% and 7.1% respectively. Together they number close to 300 million and are easily the most common surnames in the world. In Chinese, the phrase "third son of Zhang, fourth son of Li" (Chinese:张三李四;pinyin:Zhāng sān Lǐ sì) is used to mean "just anybody".
In a 1990 study, the top 200 family names accounted for over 96% of a random sample of 174,900 persons, with over 500 other names accounting for the remaining 4%. In a different study (1987), which combined data from Taiwan and China (sample size of 570,000 persons), the top 19 names covered 55.6%,[29] and the top 100 names covered 87% of the sample. Other data suggest that the top 50 names comprise 70% of the population.[30]
Most commonly occurring Chinese family names have only one character; however, about twentydouble-character family names have survived into modern times. These includeSima (司馬, simp.司马),Zhuge (諸葛, simp.诸葛),Ouyang (歐陽, simp.欧阳), occasionally romanized asO'Young, suggesting an Irish origin to English-speakers, andSitu (or Sito司徒). Sima, Zhuge, and Ouyang also happen to be the surnames of four well-known pre-modern Chinese historical figures. There are family names with three or more characters, but usually those are not ethnically Han Chinese. For example, Aixinjueluo (愛新覺羅, also romanized from theManchu language asAisin Gioro), was the family name of theManchu royal family of theQing dynasty. The longest recorded surname written usinghanzi characters is Lunalouyugumuzheshuduotumuku'adebu'axi (Chinese:魯納婁于古母遮熟多吐母苦啊德補啊喜;pinyin:Lǔnàlóuyúgǔmǔzhēshúduōtǔmǔkǔ'ādébǔ'āxǐ), an extremely rare surname reportedly used by members of theYi ethnic group inYunnan province, with seventeen characters in total.[31]
Transliteration of Chinese family names (seeList of common Chinese surnames) into foreign languages poses a number of problems. Chinese surnames are shared by people speaking a number of dialects and languages which often have different pronunciations of their surnames. The spread of theChinese diaspora into all parts of the world resulted in theRomanization of the surnames based on different languages and Chinese dialects. Countries that have adopted the system of Chinese surnames such as Vietnam and Korea also spell them according to their own pronunciations. As a result, it is common for the same surname to betranscribed differently. For example, theChen (陳) surname can appear as Chan (Cantonese, e.g.Jackie Chan), Tan (Hokkien), Tang (Teochew), Chin (Hakka andKorean), Trần (Vietnamese) and others; theLi (李) surname may appear as Lee (an example isLee Kuan Yew), theZhou (周) surname can appear as Chou, Chew, Jew and many others (e.g.Wakin Chau andJimmy Choo); while theZheng surname (鄭/郑) can be romanized into Chang, Cheng, Chung, Teh, Tay, Tee, Tsang, Zeng or Zheng (inpinyin, Chang, Cheng, Zheng and Zeng are all different names). In certain dialects, different surnames could behomonyms so it is common for family names to appear ambiguous when transliterated. Translating Chinese surnames from foreign transliteration often presents ambiguity. For example, the surname "Li" are all Mandarin-based pinyin transliteration for the surnames Lí (黎); Lǐ (李, 理 and 里); and Lì (郦/酈,栗,厉/厲, and利) depending on thetone which is usually omitted in foreign transliterations.[23]
Due to the different pronunciations and romanizations, it is sometimes easy to tell whether a Chinese person has origins in mainland China, Hong Kong, Macau, Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines, Singapore, or Taiwan. Generally, people of Mainland descent will have their surnames and names inpinyin. Those from Taiwan useWade-Giles romanization. People from Southeast Asia (mainly Thailand, Malaysia, Indonesia, and the Philippines) and Hong Kong usually base their romanization of surnames and names on theMin,Hakka andCantonese languages. The younger generation from Singapore often has their surname in dialect (Hokkien, Teochew, Hainanese, Cantonese, and Hakka) and given names in English, Mandarin, or both.
Some people use non-standard romanizations, e.g. the Hong Kongmedia mogul 邵逸夫Run Run Shaw's surname 邵 is spelt as Shaw (Shao in pinyin).
The use of different systems of romanization based on different Chinese language variants from 1900~1970 also contributed to the variations.
Some examples:
| Written form | Pinyin (Mainland China) | Wade-Giles (Taiwan) | Hokkien / Teochew /Hakka (Indonesia / Malaysia / Singapore / Philippines) | Cantonese (HK / Macau / Singapore / Malaysia) | Korean (Korea) | Vietnamese (Vietnam) | Surname meaning / origin (major if multiple) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 陈 / 陳 | Chen | Ch'en | Tan / Tan,Tang / Chin, Tjhin | Chan | Jin | Trần | Vintage,State of Chen |
| 关 / 關 | Guan | Kuan | Kwang / Kweng / Kan | Kwan | Guan | Quản | gate, gateway, mountain pass, originated as a title for guards in mountain passes |
| 何 | He | Ho | Ho /Ho / Ho | Ho | Ha | Ho | carry; what; how; why; which,Han(韩) misheard as He(何) inJianghuai Dialect |
| 黄 / 黃 | Huang | Huang | Ng,Wee / " / Wong,Bong | Wong | Hwang | Hoang | Yellow,State of Huang |
| 简 / 簡 | Jian | Chien | Kan / Kam,Kang / Kan | Kan/Gan | Gan | Giản | Simple, descendants ofState of Jin doctor Xu Jianbo (续简伯) |
| 金 | Jin | Chin | Kim / Kim / Kim / Kiem | Kam | Gim | Kim | Gold, one of the five phases (metal) inWuxing Philosophy |
| 林 | Lin | Lin | Lim / Lim / Lim / Liem | Lam | Im (South) Rim (North) | Lâm | Forest, Quan, son ofBi Gan was born in the woods during his family's exile, thus bestowed byWu of Zhou with the surname Lin |
| 王 | Wang | Wang | Ong / Heng / Wung / Wong | Wong | Wang | Vương | King or Prince, Used mainly by descendants of royalties |
| 吴 / 吳 | Wu | Wu | Goh,Go / Goh / Ng | Ng | O | Ngô | State of Wu |
| 许 / 許 | Xu | Hsü | Koh / " / Hee,See | Hui/Hua | Heo | Hứa | To allow, State of Xu |
| 张 / 張 | Zhang | Chang/Zhang | Teo / " / Tjong,Chong | Cheung | Jang | Trương | Verb, to draw abow, surname bestowed upon fletchers by theYellow Emperor |
| 赵 / 趙 | Zhao | Chao | Teow / Tey / Chao | Chiu | Jo | Triệu | State of Zhao[32] |
In Malaysia, Singapore, Indonesia, Philippineset alibi, various spellings are used depending on name origin. SeeList of common Chinese surnames for the different spellings and more examples.
Throughout most of Chinese history, surnames have served sociological functions. Because of their association with the aristocratic elite in their early developments, surnames were often used as symbols of nobility. Thus nobles would use their surnames to be able to trace their ancestry and compete for seniority in terms of hereditary rank. Examples of earlygenealogies among the royalty can be found inSima Qian'sHistorical Records, which contain tables recording the descent lines of noble houses calledshibiao (Chinese:世表;pinyin:shìbiǎo).
Later, during the Han dynasty, these tables were used by prominent families to glorify themselves and sometimes even to legitimize their political power. For example,Cao Pi, who forced the abdication of the last Han emperor in his favor, claimed descent from theYellow Emperor. Chinese emperors sometimes passed their own surnames to subjects as honors. Unlike European practice in which some surnames are obviously noble, Chinese emperors and members of the royal family had regular surnames except in cases where they came from non-Han ethnic groups. This was a result of Chinese imperial theory in which a commoner could receive theMandate of Heaven and become emperor. Upon becoming emperor, the emperor would retain his original surname. Also as a consequence, many people also had the same surname as the emperor, but had no direct relation to the royal family.
The Tang dynasty was the last period when the great aristocratic families, mostly descended from the nobility of pre-Qin states, held significant centralized and regional power. The surname was used as a source of prestige and common allegiance. During the period many genealogical records calledpudie (simplified Chinese:谱牒;traditional Chinese:譜牒;pinyin:pǔdié) were compiled to trace the complex descent lines of families or clans and their marriage ties to other families or clans. Many of these were collected byOuyang Xiu in hisNew History of Tang. To differentiate between different surnames, the Tang also choronyms before stating beforehand, for example Lǒngxī Lǐshì 隴西李氏, meaning Li of Longxi. These were generally the names of commanderies used prior to the reorganization during the Tang, so that they became exclusively associated to clans as their common use had died out. Cadet branches were also listed for further differentiation, such as Gūzāng Fáng 姑臧房, meaning Clan Li of Guzang.
During the Song dynasty, ordinary clans began to organize themselves into corporate units and produce genealogies. This trend was led by the poetSu Shi and his father. As competition for resources and positions in the bureaucracy intensified, individuals used their common ancestry and surname to promote solidarity. They established schools to educate their sons and held common lands to aid disadvantaged families. Ancestral temples were also erected to promote surname identity. Clan cohesion was usually encouraged by successive imperial governments since it aided in social stability. During the Qing dynasty surname associations often undertook extrajudicial roles, providing primitive legal and social security functions. They played important roles in the Chinese diaspora to South-East Asia and elsewhere, providing the infrastructure for the establishment of trading networks. In southern China, however, clans sometimes engaged in armed conflict in competition for land. Clans continued the tradition of tracing their ancestry to the distant past as a matter of prestige. Most of these origin myths, though well established, are spurious.
As a result of the importance of surnames, rules and traditions regarding family and marriage grew increasingly complex. For example, in Taiwan, there is a clan with the so-called "double Liao" surname. The story is that "Chang Yuan-zih of Liao's in Siluo married the only daughter of Liao San-Jiou-Lang who had no son, and he took the oath that he should be in the name of Liao when alive and should be in the name of Chang after death."[33] In some places, there are additional taboos against marriage between people of the same surname, considered to be closely related. Conversely, in some areas, there are different clans with the same surname which are not considered to be related, but even in these cases surnameexogamy is generally practiced.
Surname identity and solidarity has declined markedly since the 1930s with the decline ofConfucianism and later, the rise ofCommunism in Mainland China. During theCultural Revolution, surname culture was actively persecuted by the government with the destruction of ancestral temples and genealogies. Moreover, the influx of Western culture and forces ofglobalization have also contributed to erode the previous sociological uses of the Chinese surnames.
According to a comprehensive survey ofresidential permits released by theChineseMinistry of Public Security on 24 April 2007,[34][35] the ten most common surnames in mainland China areWang (王),Li (李),Zhang (张),Liu (刘),Chen (陈),Yang (杨),Huang (黄),Zhao (赵),Wu (吴), andZhou (周). The same names were also found (in slightly different orders) by a fairly comprehensive survey of 296 million people in 2006,[36] and by the1982 census.[37][38] The top100 surnames cover 84.77% of China's population.[35] The top 10 surnames each have populations greater than 20 million. The MPS survey revealed that the top 3 surnames in China have a combined population larger than Indonesia,[39] the world's fourth-most-populous country.
The 2019 report by Chinese Ministry of Public Security gives the surnamesWang andLi as the most common ones, with each shared by over 100 million people in China. Each of the most common 23 surnames in China has more than 10 million users.[3]
A commonly cited fact from the 1990 edition of theGuinness Book of World Records estimated that Zhang was the most common surname in the world,[40] but no comprehensive information from China was available at the time and more recent editions have omitted the claim.
According to a comprehensive survey of residential permits released by the TaiwaneseMinistry of the Interior's Department of Population in February 2005,[41] the ten most common surnames in Taiwan areChen (陳),Lin (林),Huang (黃),Chang or Zhang (張),Lee or Li (李),Wang (王),Wu (吳),Liu (劉),Tsai (蔡), andYang (楊).
Taiwanese surnames include some local variants likeTu (塗), which do not even appear among theHundred Family Surnames, as well as a number of recently created names that are fusions of various conventional surnames like Changchien (張簡) and Chiangfan (姜范). However, names in Taiwan show less diversity than China as a whole: the top ten comprise 52.63% of the Taiwanese population and the top hundred 96.11%.[41] There were also only 1,989 surnames recorded by the Ministry's survey,[41] against China's four or five thousand.
As is typical of China as a whole, these surnames conflate many different lineages and origins, although tradition may bind them to the sameancestral temples and rituals orban intermarriage. For example, some Taiwanese converts toPresbyterianism adopted the name Kai (偕,pinyinXié) in honor of the Canadian missionaryGeorge Leslie Mackay (馬偕,Pe̍h-ōe-jīMá-kai).[citation needed]
Only 3,100 surnames are now in use in China [...] compared with nearly 12,000 in the past. An 'evolutionary dwindling' of surnames is common to all societies. [...] [B]ut in China, [Du] says, where surnames have been in use far longer than in most other places, the paucity has become acute.
Why the lack of surnames, then? The reason, according to Du Ruofu of the Chinese Academy of Sciences, is that all societies experience an 'evolutionary dwindling' of family names as less-common ones die out. Because the Chinese have used surnames for thousands of years (compared to just a few centuries in many parts of Europe), this effect has become particularly significant.
