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| Chinese classics | |||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Traditional Chinese | 中國古籍 | ||||||
| Simplified Chinese | 中国古籍 | ||||||
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TheChinese classics orcanonical texts are the works ofChinese literature authored prior to the establishment of the imperialQin dynasty in 221 BC. Prominent examples include theFour Books and Five Classics in theNeo-Confucian tradition, themselves an abridgment of theThirteen Classics. The Chinese classics used a form ofwritten Chinese consciously imitated by later authors, now known asClassical Chinese. A common Chinese word for "classic" (經;经;jīng) literally means 'warp thread', in reference to the techniques by which works of this period were bound into volumes.[1]
Texts may includeshi (史, 'histories')zi (子 'master texts'),philosophical treatises usually associated with an individual and later systematized into schools of thought but also including works on agriculture,medicine, mathematics,astronomy, divination, art criticism, and other miscellaneous writings) andji (集 'literary works') as well as the cultivation ofjing, 'essence' in Chinese medicine.
In theMing and Qing dynasties, the Four Books and Five Classics were the subjects of mandatory study by thoseConfucian scholars who wished to take theimperial examination and needed to pass them in order to becomescholar-officials. Any political discussion was full of references to this background, and one could not become part of the literati—or even a military officer in some periods—without having memorized them. Generally, children first memorized theChinese characters of theThree Character Classic andHundred Family Surnames and they then went on to memorize the other classics. The literate elite therefore shared a common culture and set of values.[2]
According toSima Qian'sRecords of the Grand Historian, afterQin Shi Huang, the firstemperor of China, unified China in 221 BC, his chancellorLi Si suggested suppressing intellectual discourse to unify thought and political opinion. This was alleged to have destroyed philosophical treatises of theHundred Schools of Thought, with the goal of strengthening the official Qin governing philosophy ofLegalism. According to theShiji, three categories of books were viewed by Li Si to be most dangerous politically. These were poetry, history (especially historical records of other states than Qin), and philosophy. The ancient collection of poetry and historical records contained many stories concerning the ancient virtuous rulers. Li Si believed that if the people were to read these works they were likely to invoke the past and become dissatisfied with the present. The reason for opposing various schools of philosophy was that they advocated political ideas often incompatible with the totalitarian regime.[3]
Modern historians doubt the details of the story, which first appeared more than a century later. Regarding the alleged Qin objective of strengthening Legalism, the traditional account is anachronistic in that Legalism was not yet a defined category of thought during the Qin period,[4] and the "schools of thought" model is no longer considered to be an accurate portrayal of the intellectual history of pre-imperial China.[5][6][7]Michael Nylan observes that despite its mythic significance, the "burning of books and burying of scholars" legend does not bear close scrutiny. Nylan suggests that the reason Han dynasty scholars charged the Qin with destroying the ConfucianFive Classics was partly to "slander" the state they defeated and partly because Han scholars misunderstood the nature of the texts, for it was only after the founding of the Han that Sima Qian labeled the Five Classics as Confucian. Nylan also points out that the Qin court appointed classical scholars who were specialists on theClassic of Poetry and theBook of Documents, which meant that these texts would have been exempted, and that theBook of Rites and theZuo Zhuan did not contain the glorification of defeated feudal states which the First Emperor gave as his reason for destroying them. Nylan further suggests that the story might be based on the fact that the Qin palace was razed in 207 BC and many books were undoubtedly lost at that time.[8] Martin Kern adds that Qin and early Han writings frequently cite the Classics, especially theDocuments and theClassic of Poetry, which would not have been possible if they had been burned, as reported.[9]
TheFive Classics (五經;Wǔjīng) are five pre-Qin texts that became part of the state-sponsored curriculum during theWestern Han dynasty, which adopted Confucianism as its official ideology. It was during this period that the texts first began to be considered together as a set collection, and to be called collectively the "Five Classics".[10] Several of the texts were already prominent by theWarring States period, but the literature culture at the time did not lend itself to clear boundaries between works, so a high degree of variance between individual witnesses of the same title was common, as well as considerable intertextuality and cognate chapters between different titles.Mencius, the leading Confucian scholar of the time, regarded theSpring and Autumn Annals as being equally important as the semi-legendary chronicles of earlier periods.
Up to the Western Han, authors would typically list the Classics in the order Poems-Documents-Rituals-Changes-Spring and Autumn. However, from the Eastern Han the default order instead became Changes-Documents-Poems-Rituals-Spring and Autumn.
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In 26 BCE, at the command of the emperor,Liu Xiang (77–6 BC[11]) compiled the first catalogue of the imperial library, theAbstracts (別錄;别录;Bielu), and is the first known editor of theClassic of Mountains and Seas, which was finished by his son.[12] Liu also edited collections of stories and biographies, theBiographies of Exemplary Women.[13] He has long erroneously been credited with compiling theBiographies of the Immortals, a collection of Taoist hagiographies and hymns.[14][better source needed] Liu Xiang was also a poet, being credited with the "Nine Laments" that appears in theChu Ci.[15]
The works edited and compiled by Liu Xiang include:
This work was continued by his son,Liu Xin, who finally completed the task after his father's death. The transmitted corpus of these classical texts all derives from the versions edited down by Liu Xiang and Liu Xin. Michael Nylan has characterised the scope of the Liu pair's editing as having been so vast that it affects our understanding of China's pre-imperial period to the same degree as the Qin unification does.[29]: 51
TheFour Books (四書;Sìshū) are texts illustrating the core value and belief systems inConfucianism. They were selected byZhu Xi (1130–1200) during theSong dynasty to serve as general introduction to Confucian thought, and they were, in theMing andQing dynasties, made the core of the official curriculum for the civil service examinations.[30]They are:
The official curriculum of the imperial examination system from the Song dynasty onward are theThirteen Classics. In total, these works total to more than 600,000 characters that must be memorized in order to pass the examination. Moreover, these works are accompanied by extensive commentary and annotation, containing approximately 300 million characters by some estimates.
It is often difficult or impossible to precisely date pre-Qin works beyond their being "pre-Qin", a period of 1000 years. Information in ancient China was often by oral tradition and passed down from generations before so was rarely written down, so the older the composition of the texts may not be in a chronological order as that which was arranged and presented by their attributed "authors".[32]
The below list is therefore organized in the order which is found in theSiku Quanshu (Complete Library of the Four Treasuries), the encyclopedic collation of the works found in the imperial library of the Qing dynasty under theQianlong Emperor. TheSiku Quanshu classifies all works into 4 top-level branches: the Confucian Classics and their secondary literature; history; philosophy; and poetry. There are sub-categories within each branch, but due to the small number of pre-Qin works in the Classics, History and Poetry branches, the sub-categories are only reproduced for the Philosophy branch.
| Title | Description |
|---|---|
| I Ching | A manual of divination based on theeight trigrams attributed to the mythical figureFuxi—by at least the Eastern Zhou, these eight trigrams had been multiplied to create 64hexagrams. |
| Book of Documents | A collection of documents and speeches allegedly from theXia,Shang andWestern Zhou periods, and even earlier. It contains some of the earliest examples of Chinese prose. |
| Classic of Poetry | Made up of 305 poems divided into 160 folk songs, 74 minor festal songs, traditionally sung at court festivities, 31 major festal songs, sung at more solemn court ceremonies, and 40 hymns and eulogies, sung at sacrifices to gods and ancestral spirits of the royal house. This book is traditionally credited as a compilation edited by Confucius. A standard version, namedMaoshi Zhengyi, was compiled in the mid-7th century under the leadership ofKong Yingda. |
| The Three Rites | |
| Rites of Zhou | Conferred the status of a classic in the 12th century, in place of the lostClassic of Music. |
| Book of Etiquette and Ceremony | Describes ancient rites, social forms and court ceremonies. |
| Classic of Rites | Describes social forms, administration, and ceremonial rites. |
| Spring and Autumn Annals | Chronologically the earliest of the annals; comprising about 16,000 characters, it records the events of thestate of Lu from 722 to 481 BC, with implied condemnation of usurpations, murder, incest, etc. |
| Zuo zhuan | A different report of the same events as theSpring and Autumn Annals with a few significant differences. It covers a longer period than theSpring and Autumn Annals. |
| Commentary of Gongyang | Another surviving commentary on the same events (seeSpring and Autumn Annals). |
| Commentary of Guliang | Another surviving commentary on the same events (seeSpring and Autumn Annals). |
| Classic of Filial Piety | A small book giving advice onfilial piety; how to behave towards a senior (such as a father, an elder brother, or ruler). |
| The Four Books | |
| Mencius | A book of anecdotes and conversations ofMencius. |
| Analects | A twenty-chapter work of dialogues attributed to Confucius and his disciples; traditionally believed to have been written by Confucius's own circle it is thought to have been set down by later Confucian scholars. |
| Doctrine of the Mean | A chapter from the Book of Rites made into an independent work byZhu Xi |
| Great Learning | A chapter from the Book of Rites made into an independent work by Zhu Xi |
| Philology | |
| Erya | A dictionary explaining the meaning and interpretation of words in the context of the Confucian Canon. |
| Title | Description |
|---|---|
| Bamboo Annals | History of Zhou dynasty excavated from a Wei tomb in theJin dynasty. |
| Yi Zhou Shu | Similar in style to theBook of Documents |
| Guoyu | A collection of historical records of numerous states recorded the period from theWestern Zhou to 453 BC. |
| Strategies of the Warring States | Edited byLiu Xiang. |
| Yanzi chunqiu | Attributed to the statesmanYan Ying, a contemporary of Confucius |
The philosophical typology of individual pre-imperial texts has in every case been applied retroactively, rather than consciously within the text itself.[4] The categorization of works of these genera has been highly contentious, especially in modern times. Many modern scholars reject the continued usefulness of this model as a heuristic for understanding the shape of the intellectual landscape of the time.[5][6][7]
| Title | Description |
|---|---|
| Confucianism (excluding Classics branch) | |
| Kongzi Jiayu | Collection of stories about Confucius and his disciples. Authenticity disputed. |
| Xunzi | Attributed toXun Kuang, an ancient Chinese collection of philosophical writings that makes the distinction between what is born in man and what must be learned through rigorous education. |
| Seven Military Classics | Main article:Seven Military Classics |
| Six Secret Teachings | Attributed toJiang Ziya |
| The Art of War | Attributed toSunzi. |
| Wuzi | Attributed toWu Qi. |
| The Methods of the Sima | Attributed toSima Rangju. |
| Wei Liaozi | Attributed to Wei Liao. |
| Three Strategies of Huang Shigong | Attributed toJiang Ziya. |
| Thirty-Six Stratagems | Recently recovered. |
| Legalism | |
| Guanzi | Attributed toGuan Zhong. |
| Deng Xizi[Chinese script needed] | Fragment |
| The Book of Lord Shang | Attributed toShang Yang. |
| Han Feizi | Attributed toHan Fei. |
| Shenzi | Attributed toShen Buhai. All but one chapter is lost. |
| Canon of Laws | Attributed toLi Kui. |
| Medicine | |
| Huangdi Neijing | |
| Nan Jing | |
| Miscellaneous | |
| Yuzi[Chinese script needed] | Fragment |
| Mozi | Attributed toMozi. |
| Yinwenzi[Chinese script needed] | Fragment |
| Shenzi | Attributed toShen Dao. It originally consisted of ten volumes and forty-two chapters, of which all but seven chapters have been lost. |
| Heguanzi | |
| Gongsun longzi | |
| Guiguzi | |
| Lüshi Chunqiu | An encyclopedia of ancient classics edited byLü Buwei. |
| Shizi | Attributed to Shi Jiao |
| Mythology | |
| Classic of Mountains and Seas | A compilation of early geography descriptions of animals and myths from various locations around China.[33] |
| Tale of King Mu, Son of Heaven | tells the tale of king mu and his quest for immortality and after receiving it sadness over the death of his lover. |
| Taoism | |
| Tao Te Ching | Attributed toLaozi. |
| Guan Yinzi[Chinese script needed] | Fragment |
| Liezi | Attributed toLie Yukou. |
| Zhuangzi | Attributed toZhuang Zhou. |
| Wenzi |
| Title | Description |
|---|---|
| Chu Ci | Aside from theShi Jing (see Classics branch) the only surviving pre-Qin poetry collection[citation needed]. Attributed to the southernstate of Chu, and especiallyQu Yuan. |
{{citation}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link).
