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| Music of China | ||||
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| Media and performance | ||||
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| Nationalistic and patriotic songs | ||||
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| Regional music | ||||
| Chinese opera | |||||||||||||||||||||||
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| Traditional Chinese | 戲曲 | ||||||||||||||||||||||
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Traditional Chinese opera (traditional Chinese:戲曲;simplified Chinese:戏曲;pinyin:xìqǔ;Jyutping:hei3 kuk1), orXiqu, is a form ofmusical theatre in China with roots going back to the early periods in China. It is an amalgamation of various art forms that existed in ancient China, and evolved gradually over more than a thousand years, reaching its mature form in the 13th century, during theSong dynasty (960–1279 AD). Early forms of Chinese theater are simple; however, over time, various art forms such as music, song and dance, martial arts, acrobatics, costume and make-up art, as well as literary art forms were incorporated to form traditional Chinese opera. Performers had to practice for many years to gain an understanding of the roles. Exaggerated features and colors made it easier for the audience to identify the roles portrayed by the performers.[1][2][3][4]
There are over a hundred regional branches of traditional Chinese opera today. In the 20th century, thePeking opera emerged in popularity and has come to known as the "national theatre" of China,[5] but other genres likeYue opera,Cantonese opera,Yu opera,kunqu,qinqiang,Huangmei opera,pingju, andSichuan opera are also performed regularly before dedicated fans. Their differences are mainly found in the music andtopolect; the stories are often shared and borrowed.[6] With few exceptions (such asrevolutionary operas and to some extentShanghai operas) the vast majority of Chinese operas (includingTaiwanese operas) are set in China before the 17th century, whether they are traditional or newly written.
For centuries, Chinese opera was the main form of entertainment for both urban and rural residents in China as well as the Chinese diaspora. Its popularity declined sharply in the second half of the 20th century as a result of both political and market factors. Language policies discouraging topolects in Taiwan and Singapore, official hostility against rural religious festivals in China, andde-Sinicization in Taiwan have all been blamed for the decline of various forms in different times, but overall the two major culprits wereCultural Revolution — which saw traditional culture systematically erased, innumerable theatre professionals viciously persecuted, and younger generation raised with far lesser exposure to Chinese opera – and modernization, with its immense social impact and imported values that Chinese opera has largely failed to counter.[7] The total number of regional genres was determined to be more than 350 in 1957,[8] but in the 21st century the Chinese government could only identify 162 forms for itsintangible cultural heritage list, with many of them in immediate danger of disappearing.[9] For young people, Chinese opera is no longer part of the everyday popular music culture, but it remains an attraction for many older people who find in it, among other things, a national or regional identity.
An early form of Chinese drama is theCanjun Opera (參軍戲, or Adjutant Play) which originated from theLater Zhao Dynasty (319–351 AD).[10][11][12] In its early form, it was a simple comic drama involving only two performers, where a corrupt officer,Canjun or theadjutant, was ridiculed by a jester named Grey Hawk (蒼鶻).[10] The characters inCanjun Opera are thought to be the forerunners of the fixed role categories of later Chinese opera, particularly of its comic chou (丑) characters.[13]
Various song and dance dramas developed during theSix Dynasties period. During theNorthern Qi Dynasty, a masked dance called the Big Face (大面, which can mean "mask", alternativelydaimian 代面, and it was also called The King of Lanling, 蘭陵王), was created in honour ofGao Changgong who went into battle wearing a mask.[14][15] Another was calledBotou (撥頭, also 缽頭), a masked dance drama from theWestern Regions that tells the story of a grieving son who sought a tiger that killed his father.[16] In The Dancing Singing Woman (踏謡娘), which relates the story of a wife battered by her drunken husband, the song and dance drama was initially performed by a man dressed as a woman.[15][17] The stories told of in these song-and-dance dramas are simple, but they are thought to be the earliest pieces of musical theatre in China, and the precursors to the more sophisticated later forms of Chinese opera.[15][18]
These forms of early drama were popular in theTang dynasty where they further developed. For example, by the end of the Tang Dynasty theCanjun Opera had evolved into a performance with more complex plot and dramatic twists, and it involved at least four performers.[19] The early form of Chinese theatre became more organized in theTang dynasty withEmperor Xuanzong (712–755), who founded the "Pear Garden" (梨园/梨園; líyuán), the first academy of music to train musicians, dancers and actors.[20] The performers formed what may be considered the first known opera troupe in China, and they performed mostly for the emperors' personal pleasure. To this day operatic professionals are still referred to as "Disciples of the Pear Garden" (梨园弟子 / 梨園弟子, líyuán dìzi).[21]
By the Song Dynasty,Canjun Opera had become a performance that involved singing and dancing, and led to the development ofZaju (雜劇). Forms such as theZaju andNanxi (南戏) further matured in theSong dynasty (960–1279) andYuan dynasty (1279–1368). Acts based on rhyming schemes and innovations such as specialized roles likeDan (旦, dàn, female),Sheng (生, shēng, male),Hua (花, huā, painted-face) andChou (丑, chŏu, clown) were introduced into the opera. Although actors in theatrical performances of the Song Dynasty strictly adhered to speaking inClassical Chinese onstage, during the Yuan Dynasty actors speaking or performinglyrics inthe vernacular tongue became popular on stage.[22]
In the Yuan poetic drama, only one person sang for all of the four acts, but in the poetic dramas that developed fromNanxi during theMing dynasty (1368–1644), all the characters were able to sing and perform. PlaywrightGao Ming late in the Yuan dynasty wrote an opera calledTale of the Pipa which became highly popular, and became a model forMing dynasty drama as it was the favorite opera of the first Ming emperorZhu Yuanzhang.[23][24] The presentation at this point resembled the Chinese opera of today, except that the librettos were then very long.[25] The operatic artists were required to be skilled in many fields; according toRecollections of Tao An (陶庵夢憶) byZhang Dai, performers had to learn how to play various musical instruments, singing and dancing before they were taught acting.[26]
The dominant form of the Ming and earlyQing dynasties wasKunqu, which originated in theWu cultural area. A famous work in Kunqu isThe Peony Pavilion byTang Xianzu. Kunqu later evolved into a longer form of play calledchuanqi, which became one of the five melodies that made upSichuan opera.[27] Currently Chinese operas continue to exist in 368 different forms, the best known beingBeijing opera, which assumed its present form in the mid-19th century and was extremely popular in the latter part of theQing dynasty (1644–1911).
In Beijing opera,traditional Chinese string and percussion instruments provide a strong rhythmic accompaniment to the acting. The acting is based on allusion: gestures, footwork, and other body movements express such actions as riding a horse, rowing a boat, or opening a door. Spoken dialogue is divided into recitative and Beijing colloquial speech, the former employed by serious characters and the latter by young females and clowns. Character roles are strictly defined, and each character have their own elaborate make-up design. The traditional repertoire of Beijing opera includes more than 1,000 works, mostly taken from historical novels about political and military struggles.
At the turn of the 20th century, Chinese students returning from abroad began to experiment with Western plays. Following theMay Fourth Movement of 1919, a number of Western plays were staged in China, and Chinese playwrights began to imitate this form. The most notable of the new-style playwrights wasCao Yu (b. 1910). His major works—Thunderstorm,Sunrise,Wilderness, andPeking Man—written between 1934 and 1940, have been widely read in China.
The Republican Era saw the rise ofYue opera and all female Yue Opera troupes in Shanghai and Zhejiang. A woman-centric form, with all female casts and majority female audience members, plots were often love stories. Its rise was related to the changing place of women in society.
In the 1930s, theatrical productions performed by traveling Red Army cultural troupes in Communist-controlled areas were consciously used to promote party goals and political philosophy. By the 1940s, theater was well established in the Communist-controlled areas.
In the early years of the People's Republic of China, development ofPeking opera was encouraged; many new operas on historical and modern themes were written, and earlier operas continued to be performed. As a popular art form, opera has usually been the first of the arts to reflect changes in Chinese policy. In the mid-1950s, for example, it was the first to benefit under theHundred Flowers Campaign, such as the birth ofJilin opera.
In 1954 there were approximately 2000 government-sponsored opera troupes working throughout China each consisting of 50–100 professional performers.[28] Despite its popularity, Peking opera made up a small percentage of these troupes. After theChinese Communist Revolution a new genre emerged known asSchinggo opera which encompassed the revolutionary energy of the current sociopolitical climate. This operatic style built its foundation from the folk traditions of the rural community while also becoming influenced by European music.[28]
Opera may be used as commentaries on political affairs, and in November 1965, the attack on Beijing deputy mayorWu Han and his historical playHai Rui Dismissed from Office as anti-Mao, signaled the beginning of theCultural Revolution. During the Cultural Revolution, most opera troupes were disbanded, performers and scriptwriters were persecuted, and all operas were banned except theeight "model operas" that had been sanctioned byJiang Qing and her associates. Western-style plays were condemned as "dead drama" and "poisonous weeds", and were not performed. After the fall of theGang of Four in 1976, Beijing Opera enjoyed a revival and continued to be a very popular form of entertainment, both on stage and television.
In the 21st century, Chinese opera is seldom publicly staged except in formal Chinese opera houses. It may also be presented during the lunar seventh month ChineseGhost Festival in Asia as a form of entertainment to the spirits and audience. More than thirty famous pieces of Kunqu opera continue to be performed today, includingThe Peony Pavilion,The Peach Blossom Fan, and adaptions ofJourney to the West,Romance of the Three Kingdoms.
In 2001, Kunqu was recognized as Masterpiece of Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity by United Nations Educational, Cultural and Scientific Organization (UNESCO)
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Face paint plays a significant role in portraying the internal complexities of the performer's character with hundreds of combinations of colours and patterns.[28] Below are some general meanings which may be further focused on extremely specific details depending on the facial location of the colour.[29]
The musical components of Chinese opera are created as an inseparable entity from voice and dance/movement. Both the musicians and the actors contribute to composing musical accompaniment. This collaborative process is reflected within the production by the immaculate synchronicity between the actors' movements and the sounds of the orchestra. The musicians are required to flawlessly support the actors with sound, often waiting for vocal cues or physical signals such as the stomp of a foot. Traditionally, musicians often performed from memory – a feat made even more impressive considering pieces or sections of compositions were subject to infinite variations and often repeated.[28]
The orchestra utilized a pentatonic scale until a 7-note scale was introduced by Mongolia during theYuan Dynasty. The two extra notes functioned similarly toaccidentals withinwestern notation.[28]
The instruments in the orchestra were divided into two categories:
Traditional Chinesestring instruments used in Chinese Opera include:
Traditional Chinesepercussion instruments used in Chinese Opera include:
Traditional Chinesewoodwind instruments used in Chinese Opera include:
| English name | Chinese name(s) | Major geographical areas |
|---|---|---|
| Peking opera | Jingju (京劇) | Cities nationwide on mainland, Hong Kong, Taiwan |
| Kunqu | Kunqu (崑曲) or Kunju (崑劇) | Cities nationwide on mainland, Taiwan |
| Nuo opera | Nuoxi (傩戲) | Certain rural areas inHunan, Hubei,Guizhou, Jiangxi, Guangxi, Anhui,Shanxi, Hebei |
| Northeast China | ||
| Longjiang opera | Longjiangju (龍江劇) | Heilongjiang |
| Jilin opera | Jiju (吉劇) | Jilin |
| Laba opera | Labaxi (喇叭戲) | Haicheng (centralLiaoning) |
| North China | ||
| Ping opera | Pingju (評劇) | Hebei, Beijing,Tianjin, Heilongjiang,Jilin, Liaoning |
| Hebei bangzi | Hebei bangzi (河北梆子) | Hebei, Beijing,Tianjin, northwesternShandong |
| Laodiao | Laodiao (老調) | CentralHebei, Beijing,Tianjin |
| Hahaqiang | Hahaqiang (哈哈腔) | CentralHebei, northwesternShandong |
| Sixian | Sixian (絲弦) | Hebei, Shanxi |
| Sai opera | Saixi (賽戲) | SouthernHebei, northernShanxi |
| Siguxian | Siguxian (四股弦) | SouthernHebei |
| Xidiao | Xidiao (西調) | Handan (southernHebei) |
| Pingdiao | Pingdiao (平調) | Wu'an (southernHebei) |
| Xilu Bangzi | Xilu Bangzi (西路梆子) | Haixing County (southeasternHebei) |
| Shanxi opera | Jinju (晉劇) | Shanxi, westernHebei, centralInner Mongolia, northernShaanxi |
| Yangge opera | Yanggexi (秧歌戲) | Shanxi, Hebei,Shaanxi |
| Daoqing opera | Daoqingxi (道情戲) | |
| Errentai | Errentai (二人臺) | NorthernShaanxi, northwesternShanxi, northwesternHebei, centralInner Mongolia |
| Xianqiang | Xianqiang (線腔) | SouthernmostShanxi, westernmostHenan, easternShaanxi |
| Pu opera | Puju (蒲劇) or Puzhou Bangzi (蒲州梆子) | Shanxi |
| Northwest China | ||
| Qinqiang | Qinqiang (秦腔) | Shaanxi, Gansu,Ningxia, Xinjiang |
| Tiao opera | Tiaoxi (跳戲) | Heyang County (centralShaanxi) |
| Guangguang opera | Guangguangxi (桄桄戲) | Hanzhong (southwesternShaanxi) |
| Xiaoqu opera | Xiaoquxi (小曲戲) | Gansu |
| Quzi opera | Quzixi (曲子戲) | NorthernGansu, Xinjiang |
| Gaoshan opera | Gaoshanxi (高山戲) | Longnan (southernGansu) |
| Henan andShandong | ||
| Henan opera | Yuju (豫劇) | Henan, southernHebei, Taiwan |
| Qu opera | Quju (曲劇) | Henan |
| Yuediao | Yuediao (越調) | Henan, northernHubei |
| Wuyin opera | Wuyinxi (五音戲) | CentralShandong |
| Lü opera | Lüju (呂劇) | SouthwesternShandong |
| Maoqiang | Maoqiang (茂腔) | Jiaozhou Bay (easternShandong) |
| Anhui andJiangsu | ||
| Huangmei opera | Huangmeixi (黃梅戲) | Anhui, easternHubei, Taiwan |
| Sizhou opera | Sizhouxi (泗州戲) | Northeastern Anhui, northwestern Jiangsu |
| Lu opera | Luju (廬劇) | Central Anhui |
| Hui opera | Huiju (徽劇) | Southern Anhui, northeasternJiangxi |
| Huaihai opera | Huaihaixi (淮海戲) | Northern Jiangsu |
| Yangzhou opera | Yangju (揚劇) | Yangzhou (central Jiangsu) |
| Huai opera | Huaiju (淮劇) | Central Jiangsu |
| Wuxi opera | Xiju (錫劇) | Wuxi andChangzhou (southern Jiangsu) |
| Suzhou opera | Suju (蘇劇) | Suzhou (southern Jiangsu) |
| Tongzi opera | Tongzixi (童子戲) | Nantong (southeastern Jiangsu) |
| Zhejiang and Shanghai | ||
| Yue opera | Yueju (越劇) | Zhejiang, Shanghai, southernJiangsu, northernFujian |
| Shanghai opera | Huju (滬劇) | Shanghai |
| Huzhou opera | Huju (湖劇) | Huzhou (northern Zhejiang) |
| Shao opera | Shaoju (紹劇) | Shaoxing (northern Zhejiang) |
| Yao opera | Yaoju (姚劇) | Yuyao (northern Zhejiang) |
| Ningbo opera | Yongju (甬劇) | Ningbo (northern Zhejiang) |
| Wu opera | Wuju (婺劇) | Western Zhejiang |
| Xinggan opera | Xingganxi (醒感戲) | Yongkang (central Zhejiang) |
| Ou opera | Ouju (甌劇) | Wenzhou (southern Zhejiang) |
| Fujian and Taiwan | ||
| Min opera | Minju (閩劇) | Fujian, Taiwan (particularlyMatsu Islands), Southeast Asia |
| Beilu opera | Beiluxi (北路戲) | Shouning County (northeastern Fujian) |
| Pingjiang opera | Pingjiangxi (平講戲) | Ningde (northeastern Fujian) |
| Sanjiao opera | Sanjiaoxi (三角戲) | Northern Fujian, westernZhejiang, northeasternJiangxi |
| Meilin opera | Meilinxi (梅林戲) | Northwestern Fujian |
| Puxian opera | Puxianxi (莆仙戲) | Putian (coastal central Fujian) |
| Liyuan opera | Liyuanxi (梨園戲) | Quanzhou (southern Fujian), Taiwan, Southeast Asia |
| Gaojia opera | Gaojiaxi (高甲戲) | Quanzhou (southern Fujian), Taiwan, Southeast Asia |
| Dacheng opera | Dachengxi (打城戲) | Quanzhou (southern Fujian) |
| Taiwanese opera | Gezaixi (歌仔戲) | Taiwan, southern Fujian, Southeast Asia |
| Hubei, Hunan, andJiangxi | ||
| Flower-drum opera | Huaguxi (花鼓戲) | Hubei, Hunan,Anhui, southeasternHenan |
| Han opera | Hanju (漢劇) | Hubei, Hunan,Shaanxi, Taiwan |
| Chu opera | Chuju (楚劇) | Eastern Hubei |
| Jinghe opera | Jinghexi (荊河戲) | Southern Hubei, northern Hunan |
| Baling opera | Balingxi (巴陵戲) | Yueyang (northeastern Hunan) |
| Jiangxi opera | Ganju (贛劇) | Jiangxi |
| Yaya opera | Yayaxi (丫丫戲) | Yongxiu County (northern Jiangxi) |
| Meng opera | Mengxi (孟戲) | Guangchang County (eastern central Jiangxi) |
| Donghe opera | Donghexi (東河戲) | Ganzhou (southern Jiangxi) |
| Tea-picking opera | Caichaxi (採茶戲) | Jiangxi, Hunan,Guangxi, Hubei,Guangdong, Taiwan |
| Southwest China | ||
| Sichuan opera | Chuanju (川劇) | Sichuan, Chongqing |
| Yang opera | Yangxi (陽戲) | NorthwesternHunan, easternSichuan, Chongqing,Guizhou |
| Deng opera | Dengxi (燈戲) | NortheasternSichuan, Chongqing, southwesternHubei |
| Huadeng opera | Huadengxi (花燈戲) | Guizhou, Yunnan |
| Guizhou opera | Qianju (黔劇) | Guizhou |
| Yunnan opera | Dianju (滇劇) | Yunnan |
| Guansuo opera | Guansuoxi (關索戲) | Chengjiang County (centralYunnan) |
| South China | ||
| Cantonese opera | Yueju (粵劇) | Guangdong, Hong Kong,Macau, southernGuangxi, North America, Southeast Asia |
| Teochew opera | Chaoju (潮劇) | EasternGuangdong, southernmostFujian, Hong Kong, Southeast Asia |
| Zhengzi opera | Zhengzixi (正字戲) | Lufeng (easternGuangdong) |
| Hakka opera | Hanju (漢劇) | EasternGuangdong |
| Leizhou opera | Leiju (雷劇) | Leizhou Peninsula (southwesternGuangdong) |
| Hainan opera | Qiongju (瓊劇) | Hainan, Singapore |
| Zhai opera | Zhaixi (齋戲) | Haikou (northernHainan) |
| Caidiao | Caidiao (彩調) | Guangxi |
| Guangxi opera | Guiju (桂劇) | NorthernGuangxi |
| Nanning opera | Yongju (邕劇) | Nanning (southernGuangxi) |
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ThePeking opera subgenre is the focal point of the 1988 playM. Butterfly, in which a spy for the Chinese government disguises himself as a woman performer under the alias Song Liling and enters a 20-year relationship with French civil servant René Gallimard. The latter is unaware that female roles in Peking opera are actually played by men due to women being barred from the stage.
An update in January 2022 for the gameGenshin Impact includes a story quest that features a musical number from the characterYun Jin that is in the style of Chinese operaThe Divine Damsel of Devastation, which went viral as it was the first time many people around the world have heard Chinese opera. Even Yang Yang, the Chinese voice ofYun Jin, was surprised about it.
In the 2022 filmEverything Everywhere All at Once, one ofEvelyn'smultiverse counterparts became a prodigious Chinese opera singer after being blinded in a childhood accident. Evelyn assimilates this version's abilities to improve her self-confidence and breath control during a fight. Later in the film, the interaction between various multiverse versions of Evelyn result in the Chinese opera version botching and then salvaging a performance.
