| Monijiao | |
|---|---|
| 摩尼教 | |
 Mani on a hanging scroll, c. 14th/15th century. | |
| Language | Chinese |
| Origin | c. 10th century |
| Branched from | Manichaeism |
| Separations | Maitreyanism,White Lotus[1] |
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| Manichaeism |
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Chinese Manichaeism, also known asMonijiao (Chinese:摩尼教;pinyin:Móníjiào;Wade–Giles:Mo2-ni2 Chiao4;lit. 'religion ofMoni') orMingjiao (Chinese:明教; pinyin:Míngjiào; Wade–Giles:Ming2-Chiao4;lit. 'religion of light or 'bright religion'), was the form ofManichaeism transmitted toChina. Chinese Manichaeism rose to prominence during theTang dynasty and despite frequent persecutions, it has continued long after the other forms of Manichaeismwere eradicated in the West.[2] The most complete set of surviving Manichaean writings were written inChinese sometime before the9th century and were found in theMogao Caves among theDunhuang manuscripts.[3]
Chinese Manichaeism represents a set of teachings with the purpose of inducing awakening (佛;fó), and it is adualistic religion that believes in the eternal fight between the principles of good/light and evil/darkness, the former being represented by aGod known asShangdi,Míngzūn (明尊; 'Radiant Lord') orZhēnshén (真神; 'True God'). Salvation is delivered by the Living Spirit (淨活風;Jìnghuófēng) of God, of whom there have been many manifestations in human form, includingMani (摩尼;Móní).[2]
Due to howadaptable the teachings and beliefs of Manichaeism are, they were able tospread across a vast expanse of different cultures, from theRoman Empire to the west and China to the east. The religion arrived alongsideChristianity through the various south-eastern Chinese seaports and overlandSilk Road trade routes from the western desert regions.[4]
Sources state that Manichaeism was first brought into China in the year 694, but this may have happened much earlier.[5] Since its introduction, Manichaeism has been deeplysinicised in its style, adapting to the Chinese cultural context.[6]
According to the Chinese Manichaeans of the Ming dynasty, their religion entered the country through Mōzak during the reign of theEmperor Gaozong of Tang (650–683). The pupil of Mōzak, bishop Mihr-Ohrmazd, followed his leader into China and was granted an audience withWu Zetian (who heldde facto power in the Tang dynasty between 684 and 690, and ruled as emperor of theWu Zhou dynasty from 690 to 705) where, according to later Buddhist sources, he presented theShabuhragan which ended up becoming the most popular text of the country's Manichaeans.[7] In 731, theEmperor Xuanzong asked a Manichaean to summarize their foreign religious doctrines, and the result was a text known as theCompendium of the Teachings of Mani, the Awakened One of Light. The text interprets the prophet Mani as an incarnation ofLaozi (although Manichaeans clashed with the local Chinese Buddhists, they maintained good relations with theirTaoist neighbors); a version of the TaoistHuahujing from the 8th century shares the same perspective as theCompendium, stating that Laozi reincarnated among the Western barbarian peoples as the prophet Mani.[8]
Manichaeism was introduced into China during theTang dynasty throughCentral Asian communities[9] and was regarded as an improper form of Buddhism by the Tang authorities. Although religions of the Western peoples (including those ofBactria andSogdia) were not outlawed, they were prohibited from spreading among the native Chinese population. However, Manichaeism was a popular faith innorthern China during the Tang dynasty.[10]
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The north-westernUyghur Khaganate learned ofManichaeism from Sogdian foreigners. After the KhaganBögü Qaghan (759–780) held a three-day discussion with members of the Manichaean clergy, he converted to the religion in 763. Manichaeism subsequently became the official religion of the Khaganate, prompting the Babylonian headquarters of Manichaeism to send high-ranking clerics to thenorth-western Uyghur territory.[11][12] Due to the peace between theUyghurs andHan populations during this time, the Tang government relaxed its restraints on Manichaeism, allowing it to flourish with monasteries built by the Uyghurs in places such asShaoxing,Yangzhou,Nanjing, andJingzhou, with the first being built in 768.[11]
The years of prosperity for Manichaeism came to an end in the wake of theKyrgyz's defeat of the Uyghur Khaganate in 840 and a rising resentment for non-Chinese foreigners. Manichaeism was officially banned and persecuted through thesuppression of non-Chinese religions started by theEmperor Wuzong of Tang in 843. During that year, the Tang dynasty government confiscated all of the property belonging to the Manichaean monasteries, destroyed the temples, burnt their scriptures, laicized or killed the clergy, and specifically executed seventy Manichaean nuns inChang'an.[12]
Instead of their traditional clothing, the Manichaean priests were ordered to wear thehanfu, as the typical attire of Manichaeism was deemed un-Chinese. In some cases, the Manichaeans were ordered by Tang authorities to dress likeBuddhist monks and, since Manichaean priests were known for their long hair, they were forced to have their heads shaven. Over half of the Manichaean population is estimated to have been killed due to Emperor Wuzong'sGreat Anti-Buddhist Persecution.[13] Two years after the persecution began, a total ban on foreign relations caused Manichaeism to hide underground, from which it has never regained its past prominence.[11]
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Though they participated in rebellions against the government during theSong dynasty, the Chinese Manichaeans were continually stamped down by the successive Chinese dynasties, with theConfucian authorities of the Song era disregarding the local Manichaeans as “vegetarian demon-worshippers" (Chinese:吃菜事魔).[14] During this time, they had a "holy book" that discussed the natures of light and dark, as well as the past, present, and future, which were viewed as separate "worlds".[15]
Manichaeans of this era were buried naked, "would not touch liquor...[,] eat meat, [and would not consume] milk and cheese" and did not worshipBuddha.[15]
Their fortunes changed during theMongol-ledYuan dynasty, where the religion enjoyed a stable existence while theSakya sect ofTibetan Buddhism served as the ‘’de facto’’ state religion of the Yuan.[16] Two elaborate silk paintings survive from this era:Manichaean Diagram of the Universe andSermon on Mani's Teaching of Salvation. These works provide an insight into Yuan-era cosmology of Chinese Manichaeism.
Manichaeism survived among the population and had a profound influence on the tradition of theChinese salvationist religions, integrating with theMaitreyan beliefs such as theWhite Lotus Sect.[17]
Chinese Manichaeism took inspiration fromTaoism as well as forms of Buddhism includingChinese Buddhism.[10]
Due to the rise of theMing dynasty, the name forManichaeism, Mingjiao, was seen as offensive to the Emperor, so it received particular persecution.[16]
During and after the 14th century, some Chinese Manichaeans involved themselves with thePure Land school ofMahayana Buddhism insouthern China. Those Manichaeans practiced their rituals so closely alongside the Mahayana Buddhists that over the years the two sects became indistinguishable.[2] TheCao'an temple inFujian stands as an example this synthesis, as a statue of the "Buddha of Light" is thought to be a representation of the prophetMani.[18]
Cao'an, founded as a Manichaean temple but later associated with Buddhism, has survived to the present day. It features a statue of Mani as the Buddha of Light.[19][20][better source needed]
In 2018, rituals were conducted for the Lin Deng林瞪 (1003–1059), a Chinese Manichaean leader who lived during the Song dynasty in the three villages of Baiyang柏洋村, Shangwan上万村, and Tahou塔后村 inBaiyang Township,Xiapu County, Fujian.[21]
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Gnostic sects and founders
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Although there is no shortage of documentation of Manichaeism insouthern China (mostly in the form of highly critical books about the religion),[15] doctrinal and liturgical writings remain rare. Nearly all present knowledge of the beliefs and teachings of Chinese Manichaeism (including its presence in theTarim Basin region) draws from three texts compiled before the end of the 9th century: theTraité, theHymnscroll, and theCompendium.[22]
Besides a few absent opening lines, theTraité (Chinese:摩尼教殘經;pinyin:Móníjiào cán jīng;lit. 'fragmentary Manichean scripture') is in excellent condition and corresponds with Manichaean texts found in other languages. Within theTraité are discourses attributed to Mani in response to questions from a disciple (named"A-to" or"Addā") on the nature of Manichaean cosmogony and ethics. The first discourse primarily concerns the creation of the universe via the salvation of primal man by the powers of light, a subsequent attack by the prince of darkness, and the eventual triumph of light over the darkness. Themes such as the symbol of trees and the enumeration of nights and days are found in other western Manichaean texts, namely those written inCoptic. More precise parallels can be drawn between the fragments of Turkish-Manichaean texts. In 1983, Werner Sundermann detailed how twenty-two Parthian manuscripts served as the original compositions of the texts, which were subsequently translated intoTurkish andSogdian, and then one of thoseCentral Asian translations served as the basis for the Chinese language versions.[23]
TheHymnscroll (Chinese:下部讚;pinyin:Xiàbùzàn;lit. 'the lower (second?) section of the Manichean hymns') consists of thirty hymns that were likely directly translated fromParthian into the Chinese language, as several of the hymns are phonetic transcriptions of the original Parthian hymns, unintelligible to the common Chinese reader. The scroll finishes with an appeal for blessing. The text indicates that it was translated and compiled inTurfan.The Compendium (Chinese:摩尼光佛教法儀略;pinyin:Móní guāng fójiào fǎ yí lüè;lit. 'outline of the teachings and rules of Mani', 'Buddha of Light') begins with an account of Mani's birth that is directly based on the life of theBuddha and then provides a summarization of Manichaean doctrines. The text opens with a paragraph that explains how the text was ordered by theTang dynasty on July 16, 731, and in a later passage mentions how Mani was a reincarnation ofLao-tzu.[24]
The discovery of theXiapu Manichaean manuscripts was made known to the public in October 2008. The texts are used for Manichaean rituals inBaiyang Township,Xiapu County.[21]
Painting is a Manichaean tradition that traces its roots back to Mani himself (Arzhang), who elevated art-making to the esteem of the divine spirit, believed that meditating on beauty brought one closer to god, and ultimately saw the practicality of pictures as atranscultural method of teaching.[25] Just as the pristine-condition Manichaean texts come from Chinese Manichaeism, so, too, do the remaining examples of Manichaean artwork, in the forms of fragments and full hanging-scrolls.
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