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Chinese Buddhism orHan Buddhism (traditional Chinese:漢傳佛教;simplified Chinese:汉传佛教) is a Chinese form ofMahayana Buddhism and is the largest institutionalized religion inmainland China.[1] As of 2017[update], there are an estimated 185 to 250 million Chinese Buddhists in thePeople's Republic of China.[1] It is also a major religion inTaiwan,Singapore, andMalaysia, as well as among theChinese diaspora.[2]
Buddhism was first introduced to China during theHan dynasty (206 BCE – 220 CE). It was promoted by multipleemperors, especially during theTang dynasty (618–907 CE), which helped it spread across the country.[3] The translation of a large body ofIndian Buddhist scriptures into Chinese and the inclusion of these translations (along withTaoist andConfucian works) into aChinese Buddhist canon had far-reaching implications for the dissemination of Buddhism throughout theEast Asian cultural sphere, including Korea, Japan, and Vietnam. Chinese Buddhism also developed various unique traditions of Buddhist thought and practice, includingTiantai,Huayan,Chan,Pure Land, andEsoteric Buddhism.
From its inception, Chinese Buddhism has been influenced by pre-existingChinese religions andphilosophy, especially Confucianism and Taoism, but alsoChinese folk religion. The Chinese Buddhist canon[4] also draws from those traditions and their rituals.
Buddhist missionaries began bringing Buddhism toChina during theHan dynasty, and the religion was present in China at the beginning of thecommon era.[6][2][7] Buddhist missionaries made use of both the overland Central AsianSilk Road and themaritime routes.[8] Initially, Buddhism was poorly understood and often confused with and mixed with Taoism.[9] The Chinese saw many similarities between the two religions.[10] There was also much criticism leveled at the new foreign religion by theConfucian elites.[2] Centuries afterBuddhism originated in India,Mahayana Buddhism arrived in China through the Silk Route in the 1st century CE viaTibet.[citation needed]
One of the first tasks of the initial missionaries was the translation of Buddhist texts. The first surviving translations ofBuddhist texts into Chinese were those of the 2nd-centuryParthian,An Shigao (Chinese:安世高), who worked in the capital ofLuoyang. His work was followed by the extensiveMahayana translations of theKushan monkLokakṣema (支婁迦讖, activec. 164–186 CE), as well as the work ofDharmarakṣa (3rd century).[11][12] During this early period, theDharmaguptaka school was influential in establishing Buddhism in China.[13] This resulted in the widespread adoption of the Dharmaguptaka school'sVinaya (monastic rule) by all Chinese Buddhist schools.
The arrival of theKuchan scholarKumārajīva (334–413 CE) was a key event. Unlike the previous translators, Kumārajīva was supported by the state and given the title of national preceptor.[14] The high-quality translations produced by his disciples had a significant impact on Chinese Buddhism. He is also known for introducing theMadhyamaka school of Buddhist philosophy, which would later be calledSanlun (the Three Treatise school).[15] His work also established an Indic foundation for Chinese Buddhist philosophy, which previously had been heavily influenced by Taoist philosophy.[16]
By the 460s, Buddhism was a mainstream institution in China, and itsiconography and art were widely recognized.[17] TheDunhuang andYungang cave complexes are great examples of early Chinese Buddhist art from this period.[18]
Another important translator wasParamārtha (Zhēndì, 499–569 CE), who, along with his Chinese disciples, translated numerous works onAbhidharma,Yogachara philosophy, and other Mahayana texts.[19][20] The work of other sixth-century translators such asBodhiruci and Ratnamati also contributed to the establishment of a newChinese Yogacara school, also known as the Consciousness-Only school (Chinese:唯識宗;pinyin:wéishí-zōng).[citation needed]
The 6th and 7th centuries saw a flowering of new and unique Chinese Buddhist traditions, including:
During theTang dynasty, the monkXuanzang (602–664) journeyed to India and back and wrote extensive and detailed reports of his findings, which have subsequently become important for the study of India during this period. Xuanzang also brought back many Buddhist texts and led a group of translators responsible for many influential Chinese translations of classic Buddhist works.[21] His efforts led to the establishment of the idealistic Yogachara (Consciousness-only) tradition in East Asia.
The Tang era was a period of significant development for Buddhism in China.[22] During this time, asinicized Buddhism was widely accepted and practiced throughout the empire, with many monasteries and temples. The religion was popular with all social classes and was influential on Chinese culture,[2] having more followers than Taoism.[23] Buddhist themes can be found in much of the literature of this period, such as in the works of famous poets such asWang Wei (701–761) andBo Juyi (772–846). Artistic complexes from this period, such as theLongmen Grottoes, also attest to the artistic expression of Chinese Buddhism during this era.[2]
A well-known proponent of the religion during the Tang era was EmpressWu Zetian (r. 690–705), who is known for her promotion of the Longmen cave complex.[24][25] She also depicted herself as abodhisattva.[26]
The next important event in the history of Chinese Buddhism was the arrival ofSubhakarasimha,Vajrabodhi, andAmoghavajra, and their establishment ofChinese Esoteric Buddhism from 716 to 720, during the reign ofEmperor Xuanzong of Tang. This Chinese form ofVajrayana Buddhism now became popular with the elites, and by the time ofEmperor Daizong of Tang (r. 762–779), its influence among the upper classes was significant.
TheGreat Anti-Buddhist Persecution (841–845) underEmperor Wuzong of Tang greatly impacted and weakened the Buddhist institutions in China. Perhaps the main reason for this persecution was the Chinese state's need for taxes and wealth.[27]
TheFive Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period (907–960/979), an era of political upheaval and civil war, negatively impacted the religion. Various Chinese Buddhist traditions contracted or died out during this period.
TheSong dynasty (960–1279) saw the flourishing of Chinese Buddhist culture.[2] During this era,Chan Buddhism grew to become the most influential school, with close ties to the imperial government and an organized system of temple rank and administration.[28] It was during this time that theFive Houses of Chan developed. Many classic Chan texts were written during this era, such as thekoan collections of theLinji school, such as theBlue Cliff Record (1125) andThe Gateless Gate (1228).[29]
Likewise, during this time, the works ofHongzhi Zhengjue (1091–1157) developed the meditation method ofsilent illumination.[30] Both of these traditions of Chan practice were influential (and remain so) on East AsianZen Buddhism (includingJapanese Zen,Korean Seon, and VietnameseThiền).
TheYuan dynasty (1271–1368) patronizedTibetan Buddhism; thus, during this period, there was a steady growth of this tradition in China.[31] A common perception was that this patronage oflamas caused corrupt forms oftantra to become widespread.[31] When the Yuan dynasty was overthrown and theMing dynasty was established, the Tibetan lamas were expelled from the court, and this form of Buddhism was denounced as being an unorthodox path.[31]
During theMing dynasty (1368–1644), there was a revival of the study of Chinese traditions such as Tiantai, Huayan, and Yogachara, and most monks belonged to the two dominant Chan schools: Linji andCaodong.[32][33][34] At this point in its history, Chinese Buddhism had also become quitesyncretic, drawing from all the main Chinese traditions. An example of this is the figure ofHanshan Deqing, one of the great reformers of Chinese Buddhism.[35] Like many of his contemporaries, he advocated the dual practice of the Chan and Pure Land methods.[35] He also directed practitioners in the use ofmantras as well as scripture reading. He was also renowned as a lecturer and commentator and was admired for his strict adherence to the precepts.[35]
During theQing dynasty (1644–1911), the imperial court shifted its support to theGelug school of Tibetan Buddhism.[36] Chinese Buddhism suffered during the various imperial and internal conflicts of the Qing dynasty, especially theTaiping Rebellion (December 1850 – August 1864), which saw many temples destroyed and scriptures burned by rebels.[37] This era also saw the arrival ofChristian missionaries to China, a right which had been granted to theWestern powers after theOpium Wars.[36]
During theRepublican period (1912–1949), there were efforts to reform and modernize Chinese Buddhism in response to the challenges of modernity.[38][2] The most notable of these reformers were theHumanistic Buddhists, such asTaixu andYin Shun. Humanistic Buddhism sought to move away from ritualistic and otherworldly obsessions to embrace more worldly pursuits such aseducation andcharitable work.[2] There was also a revival of Chan byHsu Yun andSheng Yen[38] as well as a revival of Tiantai by Dixian andTanxu.[39]
After theChinese Communist Revolution, many Buddhists and monastics joined theRepublican exodus to Taiwan. In the latter half of the twentieth century, many new Buddhist temples and organizations were set up by the exiles in Taiwan, includingFo Guang Shan,Dharma Drum Mountain, andTzu Chi.[2] These organizations also became influential inMainland China after the end of theCultural Revolution.[citation needed]
Chinese Buddhism suffered extensive repression, persecution, and destruction during the Cultural Revolution (from 1966 untilMao Zedong's death in 1976).Maoist propaganda depicted Buddhism as one of theFour Olds, as a superstitious instrument of the ruling class and ascounter-revolutionary.[40] Buddhist monks were attacked, disrobed, arrested, and sent to camps. Buddhist writings were burned. Buddhist temples, monasteries, and art were systematically destroyed, and Buddhist lay believers ceased any public display of their religion.[40][41]
During the normalization period (Boluan Fanzheng, 1977 to the early 1980s) led byDeng Xiaoping, a revival of Chinese Buddhism began to take place.[42][43][44] This was a period that saw the restoration of damaged Buddhist temples such as theGuoqing Temple andGuanghua Temple, as well as the return of monastic ordination and Buddhist institutions. Monks such as Zhenchan (真禪) and Mengcan (夢參), who were trained in the Chan and Huayan traditions, traveled widely throughout China as well as other countries, such as the United States, and lectured on both Chan and Huayan teachings.[45] Monks were now required to obtain certificates from the authorities that permit them to reside in monasteries.[46]: 190
TheBuddhist Association of China is the sole official government supervisory organ of Buddhism in the country.[47] It is directed by theUnited Front Work Department of theChinese Communist Party (CCP).[48]
Chinese Buddhism is asinicized form ofMahayana Buddhism, which draws on theChinese Buddhist canon (大藏經;Dàzàngjīng; "Great Storage of Scriptures")[4] as well as numerous Chinese traditions. It focuses on studyingMahayana sutras and treatises and draws its main doctrines from these sources. Some of the most important scriptures in Chinese Buddhism include theLotus Sutra, theAvatamsaka Sutra, theVimalakirti Sutra, theNirvana Sutra, theAmitabha Sutra, and theSurangama Sutra.[2][49]
As such, Chinese Buddhism adheres to the classic Mahayana worldview, which includes a belief in manyrealms of existence, the existence of manyBuddhas andbodhisattvas, as well as many other kinds of divine beings and ghosts.[2] Chinese Buddhism also upholds classic Mahayana doctrines such askarma (報應) andrebirth (超生), the bodhisattva path, and the doctrines ofemptiness,buddha-nature, and theone vehicle.[2]
ChineseBuddhist philosophy contains various doctrinal traditions, the most important being theTiantai,Huayan,Sanlun, andWeishi schools of thought.[2] These doctrinal traditions developed their own scriptural commentaries and treatises and also various doctrinal classifications (panjiao), which hierarchically ordered the mass of Buddhist scriptures in order to advance their school'shermeneutical worldview.[2] For example, according to master Zhiyi's "eight teachings and five periods" classification, the final and supreme teaching of the Buddha is found in theLotus Sutra and theNirvana Sutra.[2] According to Huayan masters such asFazang, theHuayan Sutra contains the supreme teaching, while the Weishi school held that the Yogachara texts are where the "third turning" of the Dharma can be found, and thus, represent the final and ultimate teaching of the Buddha.
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Chinese Buddhism contains a wide array of religious practices and observances. Ritual and devotional practices are commonly seen as generating karmicmerit, which can bring about positive results in this life or the next.[2]
According to Mario Poceski, for the vast majority of ordinary Chinese Buddhists, "prevalent expressions of Buddhist piety were (and still are) channeled via a variety of popular modes of worship and ritual observance."[2] Many monasteries and temples typically follow astandardized traditional liturgy for daily morning and evening services, which typically involvechanting or recitation ofsūtra(s) or passages from a sūtra,mantras anddhāraṇīs,gathas and verses of praises of Buddhist deities and figures, and food bestowal rites. Worship services can also includeBuddhist devotional practices such as offerings to an altar (of items like incense, flowers, food, and candles), ceremonial bowing, and extensive liturgies (including repentance ceremonies, rites for good health, and memorials for the dead).[2] According to Chün-fang Yü, the most popular Chinese Buddhist ritual performed today is theDabei Chan, also known as the "Great Compassion Repentance", which associated withGuanyin and theGreat Compassion Dharani.[50]
Adhering to sets of ethical rules, such as the classic Buddhistfive precepts, is another key part of Buddhist practice. Taking up the ethical precepts in a ceremony, along with taking refuge in the three jewels (Buddha, Dharma, and Sangha), is a common way of entering the Buddhist path.[2] Another important set of ethical precepts is thebodhisattva precepts of theBrahma's Net Sutra, which are often practiced by both laypeople and monastics.[2] Acts of charity or social service (結緣) are also an important of part of ChineseBuddhist ethics.
Another key part of Chinese Buddhism is engaging inBuddhist meditations such as chanting the Buddha's name (nianfo), which is the core practice of Pure Land Buddhism, and seated meditation (zazen), which is the focus of the Chan tradition. The practice of recitation of the Buddha's name is commonly done in a group setting, sometimes as part of an intensivenianfo recitation retreat, which can last for several days. These retreats might also include chanting sutras, taking of theeight precepts, silent meditation, andDharma lectures.[51]
A major type of practice for Chinese Buddhist monastics is the performance of rituals aiming to help facilitate the nourishment and universal salvation (普渡;pǔdù) of allsentient beings in the six realms ofsaṃsāra.[52][53] This type of ritual often involves esoteric ortantric practices and usually requires setting-up a dedicated ritual space, invoking theBuddhist pantheon, and thetransference of merit from the performance of the ritual. A few examples of this type are theYujia Yankou rite and theShuilu Fahui ceremony.[54]
Textual practices are also commonly practiced by monks and laypeople. These include printing, copying, propagating, and reciting Buddhist scriptures, studying Buddhist texts, and attending lectures.[55][56] Buddhist temples may also have special elements associated with sacred texts, such as lecture halls ordharma halls, libraries, and scripture platforms (施法壇), a kind of sacred podium.[55][56]
Other important Buddhist rituals are those related to death, which is seen as a key moment for Buddhists who want to be reborn in thepure land of a Buddha (the most popular being Amitabha's pure land).[51] The focus of these rituals is to keep the dying person free of distractions and offer spiritual support (so they can focus their minds on Amitabha through the repetition of the Buddha's name).[51] It is commonly believed that during these rituals one can experience auspicious signs, such as visions of Amitabha and bright lights.[51]
Pilgrimages to well-known monasteries and sites, such as theFour Sacred Buddhist Mountains (Mount Wutai,Mount Emei,Mount Jiuhua, andMount Putuo) are undertaken by monastics and lay practitioners alike.[57]
Another popular practice is the use of mantras anddharanis. A few examples include theMahā Karuṇā Dhāraṇī, theUṣṇīṣa Vijaya Dhāraṇī, theŚūraṅgama mantra, theUcchuṣma mantra, theEkādaśamukha mantra, and theCundī Dhāraṇī, which is one of theTen Small Mantras that are regularly chanted as part of standard morning and evening liturgical services.[57] Robert Gimello has also observed that in Chinese Buddhist communities, the esoteric practices ofCundī enjoyed popularity among both the common people and the elite.[58]
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Various MahayanaBuddhist deities are venerated in Chinese Buddhism, most of which areBuddhas and bodhisattvas. Some of the key figures include:[59][2]
Chinese Buddhist temples usually include numerous images and statues of Buddhas and bodhisattvas. They are often ritually carved and installed as part of a consecration ritual that may include chanting and scripture reading.[60] Devotion towards these images is a major part of Chinese Buddhism. As Chün-fang Yü writes, "people in China worship Buddhas and bodhisattvas in rituals, write poems and novels about them, praise them in songs and hymns, and tell stories and stage plays about them. And above all else, they worship the images of these holy beings."[61]
According to Mario Poceski, Chinese Buddhist temples generally follow a traditionalChinese palace layout:
"[Buddhist temples] consist of a series of halls and courtyards that are arranged symmetrically around a central axis, which usually runs from north to south. The main hall is typically a large building that is centrally located along the main axis. In larger monasteries or temples, a number of ancillary halls also house the images of lesser Buddhist divinities, giving residents and visitors alike a wide choice of objects of worship and supplication."[2]
Another common structure is apagoda, which may contain Buddhist relics and statues or images of Buddhas and bodhisattvas.[62]
Buddhist monasticism is an important part of Chinese Buddhism. Both male and female monastics follow theDharmaguptaka ofVinaya, which is known as theFour Part Vinaya (Sifen lü ) in China and has 250 rules for monks and 348 for nuns.[2]
Buddhist monks and nuns perform numerous religious practices and services, including offerings to altars, liturgical services,circumambulating the Buddha hall, preaching the scriptures, giving Dharma lectures, ritual meals, and chanting at mealtime, as well as confession and repentance rituals.[56]
There have been many different types of monasteries throughout Chinese Buddhist history. There are city monasteries, country monasteries, and monasteries deep in the mountains. Some monasteries may be large and rich, with thousands of monastics, while others are small with just a few monastics. The most prestigious monasteries have support from rich elites, and the smallest are usually in small villages.[63]
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The Chinese word純淨素 (chún jìng sù), meaning 'pure Buddhist vegan/vegetarian', is widely used in Chinese Buddhism.[2] Such dietary practice is promoted in various Mahayana sutras, such as theLankavatara Sutra (楞伽阿跋多羅寶經;léngqié ābáduōluó bǎojīng).[2][5][64]
Monastics are often required to bevegetarian orvegan, and other animal products are often banned in Buddhist temples and monasteries.[2] Other dietary restrictions may include avoiding eggs, dairy, and the five types of pungent vegetables.[2]
Devout laypeople are also often vegetarian. Some may practice being vegetarian on certain sacred days, during religious retreats, or during certain festivals.
Temples and monasteries often have vegetarian dining halls, and vegetarian feasts are a common feature of popular celebrations.[2]
In Chinese Buddhism,lay Buddhist practitioners have traditionally played an important role, and lay practice of Buddhism in China has had similar tendencies to those of monastic Buddhism.[57] Many historical biographies of lay Buddhists are available, which give a clear picture of their practices and role in Chinese Buddhism. In addition to these numerous biographies, there are accounts from Jesuit missionaries, such asMatteo Ricci, which provide extensive and revealing accounts of the degree Buddhism penetrated elite and popular culture in China.[57]
Traditional practices—such as meditation, mantra recitation, mindfulness of Amitābha Buddha, asceticism, and vegetarianism—were all integrated into the belief systems of ordinary people.[57] It is known from accounts from the time of the Ming dynasty that lay practitioners often engaged in practices from both the Pure Land and Chan traditions, as well as the study of the Buddhist sutras. TheHeart Sutra and theDiamond Sutra were the most popular, followed by theLotus Sutra and theAvatamsaka Sutra.[57]
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Chinese Buddhism also includes influences from nativeChinese religions, including Confucianism, Taoism, andChinese folk religion.[2] This ecumenical attitude and embrace of religious pluralism has been a common feature of Chinese culture since ancient times.[2] For example, Chinese Buddhists may practiceqigong,tai chi, andgongfu, veneratenative deities (such asGuan Yu,Mazu, and theMonkey King), engage inancestor veneration, practicetraditional medicine, and make use offeng shui andChinese talismans. Chinese religions such as Taoism and Confucianism were also, in turn, influenced by Buddhism.[2]
The idea of the compatibility of thethree teachings (Confucianism, Buddhism, and Taoism) is common in China and is expressed in the phrasethe three teachings harmonious as one (三敎合一;sānjiào héyī).[65][66] Chinese Buddhism developed mythologies and philosophies that incorporated and accommodated Chinese religions. For example, apocryphal texts tell of howLaozi was actually a disciple of the Buddha and howConfucius was a bodhisattva.[7] Chinese Buddhist thinkers such asGuifeng Zongmi argued that all three teachings should be followed and practiced since they all contain important truths (though he considered Buddhism to reveal the highest truth).[67]
One such important element of Chinese Buddhism is that religious practices focus on one's ancestors, something that is shared in common with other traditional Chinese religions. This can include paying respect to them at various sites and at festivals such as theQingming andZhong Yuan festivals, as well as participating in services to pray for one's deceased ancestors.
The ritual burning of incense (shaoxiang,jingxiang) is another common religious practice in Buddhist spaces derived from traditional Chinese religion. During theZhou dynasty, the Chinese believed that smoke resulting from the burning ofsandalwood would act as a bridge between the human world and the spirits.[68] The practice remains a common offering in Chinese Buddhism, which it shares with other Chinese religions.
Another common feature of Chinese religion ismultiple religious belonging. As such, Chinese adherents may practice Buddhism alongside other Chinese religious practices without seeing this as conflicting. According to Mario Poceski:
Many or even most people who actually come to worship at Buddhist temples are not hardcore believers. A good number of them assume the kinds of fuzzy or hybrid religious identities that are typical of Chinese religiosity; among other things, that can mean that many of them also worship at Daoist temples or shrines associated with popular religion. This is one of the reasons why it is very difficult to arrive at reliable data about the number of Buddhists in China.[2]
During the Tang and Yuan dynasties, Chinese Buddhism was also in proximity to Chinese branches of theChurch of the East[69] andChristianity in general, and competed with these traditions,[70] especially during the Tang dynasty.[71] Chinese[70]Tibetan andMongolian Buddhism[72] were also significantly influenced by them,[73] as Mongolian Buddhism, influenced byNestorian beliefs,[72] and Tibetan Buddhism spread out during the Yuan dynasty. The three Buddhist traditions also heavily influenced each other.
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Traditional Chinese Buddhist scholars such asSheng-yen enumerate thirteen Buddhist traditions or schools (zōng).[74] This list is also found in traditional Japanese Buddhist histories, particularly that ofGyōnen (1240–1321).[75]
Over time, some of these schools survived or were revived as living traditions, while others are now defunct historical traditions or were absorbed into other schools. These traditions are not rigid designations and there has always been much intermixing, and many temples and communities are influenced by many of these traditions (and also by local Chinese custom and traditional Chinese religions such as Taoism). Some traditions may also have numerous sub-schools or sects.[76]
The various Chinese Buddhist traditions are notexclusivist, and are better seen as trends, emphases,schools of thought, ordharma-gates (法門;fǎmén), instead of as separate sects.[22][77] Chün-fang Yü quotes a famous saying that describes the harmonious situation in Chinese Buddhism, "Tiantai and Huayan for doctrine, Chan and Pure Land for practice."[78]
As Mario Poceski notes, Chinese Buddhism "lacks clear sectarian divisions of the kind we find in other Buddhist traditions".[2] All Chinese monastics follow the same ordination procedures and monastic precepts; and, as such, there is no rigid separation betweenschools orsects. While traditions such as Chan and Tiantai are understood as distinctive teachings, they are all part of the single Chinese Buddhist tradition, which is "characterized by broad-minded acceptance of a variety of styles of discourse, modes of worship, and approaches to spiritual cultivation."[2] Due to the religion's acceptance of diversity,ecumenism, and difference, most Chinese Buddhists would not identify themselves as being part of a specific school.[2] However, there are still disagreements and doctrinal debates within the community.[2]
The thirteen schools are:[74][79][80]
Many of these traditions were later exported to other East Asian nations, such as Japan, Korea, and Vietnam.
According toSheng-yen, the Chan school is the most popular school in China today, and it is often eclectically combined with the other traditions of Pure Land, Tiantai, Huayan, Three Treatises, Consciousness-Only, Vinaya, and Esoteric.[82]
There is also a modernist movement calledHumanistic Buddhism, which emphasizeshumanism, charity, and other humanitarian practices that help improve social conditions.
There are many sects and organizations proclaiming a Buddhist identity and pursuit (fo orfu: 'awakening', 'enlightenment') that are not recognized as legitimate Buddhism by theChinese Buddhist Association and the Chinese government. These groups include:
Chinese Buddhists celebrate numerous religious festivals and holidays, and these are the most widely attended and popular of the religion's events.[84]
During religious festivals, Chinese people visit temples to take part in rituals, chanting, food, celebrations, parades, and to make offerings of prayers, incense, fruits, flowers, and monetary donations. On such days, they may observe the moral precepts very strictly, as well as partake of a full day's vegetarian diet. Some of the most important holidays celebrated by Chinese Buddhists includeBuddha's Birthday (on the eighth day of the fourth lunar month),Chinese New Year and theLantern Festival (on the first and fifteenth days of the first lunar month), and theGhost Festival (fifteenth day of the seventh lunar month).[85]
The following holiday dates given are based on theChinese calendar. For example, 8.4 refers to the eighth day of the fourth month of the Chinese calendar.[86]
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