China–United Kingdom relations

China	United Kingdom
Diplomatic mission
Embassy of China, London	Embassy of the United Kingdom, Beijing
Envoy
AmbassadorZheng Zeguang	AmbassadorCaroline Wilson

Chinese–United Kingdom relations (simplified Chinese:中英关系;traditional Chinese:中英關係;pinyin:Zhōng-Yīng guānxì), more commonly known asBritish–Chinese relations,Anglo-Chinese relations andSino-British relations, are theinterstate relations betweenChina (with its various governments through history) and theUnited Kingdom. ThePeople's Republic of China and theUnited Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland established diplomatic relations on 17 June 1954.^[1]

In the 19th century, theBritish Empire established several colonies in China, most prominentlyHong Kong, which it gained after defeating theQing dynasty in theFirst Opium War. Relations between the two nations have gone through ups and downs over the course of the late 20th and early 21st centuries. The UK and China were on opposing sides during theCold War, and relations were strained over the issue ofHong Kong.^[2][3] In 1984, both sides signed theSino-British Joint Declaration, which eventually led to thehandover of Hong Kong to China in 1997.

Following the conclusion of the Cold War and the handover of Hong Kong, a period known as the "Golden Era" of Sino-British relations began with multiple high-level state visits and bilateral trade and military agreements.^[4][5] This roughly 20-year period came to an abrupt end during the2019–2020 Hong Kong protests and the imposition of the2020 Hong Kong national security law, which was viewed in the UK as a serious breach of the Sino-British Joint Declaration.^[6][7] In the years following relations have deteriorated significantly over various issues including Chinese company Huawei's involvement in UK's5G network development,espionage, andhuman rights abuses inXinjiang.^[8][9] However, despite this, China is the UK's fifth-largest trading partner as of 2025.^[10]

In the 1620s,English ships began arriving atMacau, a port city leased by China toPortugal. During this period, an English merchant vessel namedThe Unicorn sank near Macau. The Portuguese salvaged several cannons, specifically sakers, from the wreck and sold them to the Chinese around 1620. These cannons were then replicated by the Chinese as theHongyipao, marking an early instance of military technology exchange.

On 27 June 1637, a fleet of four heavily armed English ships commanded byCaptain John Weddell reached Macau in an effort to establish trade relations with China. This venture was not sanctioned by theEast India Company but was instead organized by a private consortium led bySir William Courten, withKing Charles I personally investing £10,000. The Portuguese authorities in Macau, bound by their agreements with theMing court, opposed the English expedition. This opposition, coupled with the English presence, quickly provoked the Ming authorities.

Later that summer, the English force captured one of the Bogue forts at the mouth of thePearl River and engaged in several weeks of intermittent skirmishes and smuggling operations. The situation deteriorated further, leading the English to rely on Portuguese mediation for the release of three hostages. Eventually, the expedition withdrew from the Pearl River on 27 December 1637. The fate of the fleet afterward remained uncertain.^[11][12][13]

The relationship betweenGreat Britain and theQing Dynasty evolved over several centuries, shaped by diplomacy, trade, military conflict, and the broader dynamics of empire.

Early contact included the 1685 visit ofMichael Shen Fu-Tsung, a Chinese Jesuit, to Britain, where he metKing James II.^[14] Trade officially began in 1699 when the East India Company was permitted to conduct business inGuangzhou (Canton), marking the start of sustained commercial relations.^[15]

In 1784, theLady Hughes Affair, where a British gunner's salute led to unintended deaths, heightened tensions. This foreshadowed the cultural and legal misunderstandings that would plague future interactions. High-level diplomatic efforts followed, such as theMacartney Embassy of 1793 and the Amherst Embassy of 1816, both of which failed to establish equal diplomatic footing with the Qing court.

By the 1820s and 1830s, British merchants had turnedLintin Island into a hub for theopium trade.^[16][17] This illicit commerce contributed directly to theFirst Opium War (1839–42). Prior to the war, the East India Company's monopoly on Chinese trade was abolished (1833–35), prompting efforts by successive British governments to maintain peace. However, figures likeLord Napier took a more provocative stance, pushing for deeper market access, despite the Foreign Office underLord Palmerston favoring a less confrontational approach^[18]

The war culminated in a decisive British victory. British motivations were framed by Palmerston's biographer as a confrontation between a dynamic, modern trading nation and a stagnantautocracy.^[19] However, critics such as theChartists and youngWilliam Ewart Gladstone condemned the war as morally reprehensible, pointing to the devastation caused by opium addiction.^[20][21][22]

A temporary peace was brokered with theConvention of Chuenpi in 1841, though it was never ratified. The conflict formally ended with theTreaty of Nanking in 1842, which cededHong Kong Island toBritain and opened five treaty ports to international trade.^[23] TheTreaty of the Bogue followed in 1843, granting Britain most-favoured-nation status and legal extraterritoriality.

Throughout the mid-19th century, British influence in China expanded. From 1845 to 1863, the British Concession inShanghai was established, later becoming part of theShanghai International Settlement. TheSecond Opium War (1856–60) further entrenched British power. Following military successes, including the sack of theOld Summer Palace in 1860, theConvention of Peking granted Britain control of theKowloon Peninsula and led to the establishment of a Britishlegation in Beijing by 1861.

British consulates soon appeared across Chinese territory, including inWuhan,Kaohsiung,Taipei, Shanghai, andXiamen. Meanwhile, domestic unrest occasionally erupted, such as the1868 Yangzhou riot targetingChristian missionaries. Despite such challenges, skilled diplomats likeLi Hongzhang (1823–1901) continued efforts to mediate Qing engagement with Western powers.

Technological integration followed. From 1870 to 1900, Britain developed and operated atelegraph network linkingLondon to key Chinese ports.^[24] Diplomatic ties were formalized further when China opened a legation in London in 1877, headed byGuo Songtao. Britain also advised on the Ili Crisis (1877–81), reflecting its growing influence in Qing foreign affairs.

The late 19th century saw geopolitical adjustments. After Britain's annexation ofBurma in 1886, the Burma Convention acknowledged British occupation while maintaining China's symbolic suzerainty through continued tribute payments.^[25][26] Conflict between Britain andTibetan forces inSikkim led to theTreaty of Calcutta (1890), by which China recognized British control over northern Sikkim. A further agreement in 1890 fixed the border between Sikkim andTibet.^[27]

Britain's global influence was also felt in individual incidents, such as the 1896 detention of revolutionarySun Yat-sen in the Chinese Legation in London. British public pressure led to his release, illustrating the political significance ofdiaspora activism.

The 1898Convention for the Extension of Hong Kong leased theNew Territories to Britain for 99 years, and that same year, Britain secured a lease onWeihai Harbour inShandong. An odd footnote occurred in December 1898, when the arrival of four young English women in Shanghai sparked public commentary and minor diplomatic tensions.^{[28][29][30][31]}

The turn of the century brought renewed conflict during theBoxer Rebellion (1900–1901), a violent anti-foreigner uprising suppressed by an allied force led by Britain andJapan. The resultingBoxer Protocol imposed heavy penalties on the Qing regime. Britain continued to assert influence over Tibetan affairs, most notably through the 1906 Anglo-Chinese Treaty on Tibet, which Britain interpreted as limiting China to nominalsuzerainty.

By 1909, British consulates inTaiwan were closed following Japan's assertion of sovereignty, marking a shift inEast Asian power dynamics. This period closed with Britain entrenched as a dominant force inChina's foreign relations, trade, and territorial concessions.

Between 1912 and 1950, relations between Britain and theRepublic of China (ROC) evolved significantly, marked by shifting alliances, conflict, diplomacy, and eventual disengagement.

AlthoughSun Yat-sen, who later became the founding father of theRepublic of China, was rescued by British diplomats from Qing agents in 1896, early British involvement with Chinese political affairs was often shaped by colonial interests and imperial competition.

DuringWorld War I, in 1916, Britain recruited tens of thousands of Chinese labourers into theChinese Labour Corps to support the war effort on theWestern Front. On 14 August 1917, China officially joined theAllies, aligning itself with Britain in opposition to theCentral Powers.

However, tensions emerged after the war. On 4 May 1919, theMay Fourth Movement erupted in response to the Chinese government's failure to secure benefits from the postwar settlement. Britain had supported its treaty ally Japan over the contentiousShandong Problem, contributing to a broader Chinese disillusionment with Western democracies and a turn toward theSoviet Union for ideological and political inspiration.

At theWashington Naval Conference (November 1921–February 1922), Britain joined other powers in signing theNine-Power Treaty, which recognised Chinese sovereignty. As part of the agreements, Japan returned control ofShandong province to China, resolving the Shandong Problem^[32]

In the years that followed (1922–1929), Britain, theUnited States, and Japan backed variousChinese warlords, often working against the revolutionaryNationalist government inGuangzhou (Canton). Britain and the U.S. supportedChen Jiongming's rebellion against the Nationalists, exacerbating tensions. These foreign interventions, and domestic instability, culminated in theNorthern Expedition (1926–1927), which eventually brought most of China underChiang Kai-shek’s control.^[33]

On 30 May 1925, the killing of nine Chinese protesters by the British-ledShanghai Municipal Police triggered theMay 30 Movement, a nationwide anti-British campaign. This incident highlighted growing Chinese resentment toward foreign imperialism.

Further unrest inHankou (Wuhan) led to the Chen–O’Malley Agreement of 19 February 1927, under which Britain agreed to hand over its concession in Hankou to the Chinese authorities.

Between 1929 and 1931, China pursued full sovereignty by regaining control over its tariff rates, previously fixed at just 5% by foreign powers, and seeking to abolish extraterritorial privileges enjoyed by Britain and other nations in treaty ports like Shanghai. These goals were largely achieved by 1931.^[34]

In 1930, Britain returnedWeihai Harbour to Chinese control. Further diplomatic progress was marked by Britain's decision, on 17 May 1935, to elevate its Legation in Beijing to an Embassy; addressing longstanding Chinese complaints about the perceived disrespect of a lower diplomatic rank.^[35]

Following the Chinese capital's move toNanjing, the British Embassy also relocated there in 1936–1937. As Japan launched its invasion of China in 1937, British public opinion and government sympathy tilted in China's favour. Nonetheless, with Britain focused on defending its own empire, especiallySingapore, direct support was limited. Britain did assist by training Chinese troops in India and providing airbases for American supply missions to China^[36]

DuringWorld War II (1941–1945), Britain and China became official allies against Japan. Chinese troops trained inIndia fought alongside British forces in theBurma campaign. Close coordination continued throughout the war, symbolised by the wartime cooperation betweenChiang Kai-shek andWinston Churchill.However, postwar diplomacy shifted dramatically. On 6 January 1950,His Majesty's Government withdrew its recognition from theRepublic of China, now based in Taiwan, following theCommunist victory on the mainland. Britain closed its Embassy in Nanjing but maintained a Consulate inTamsui, nominally for liaison with theTaiwan Provincial Government.

Between 1949 and the present, the relationship between theUnited Kingdom and thePeople's Republic of China (PRC) has evolved through a series of pragmatic decisions, diplomatic tensions, and significant historical moments.

During World War II, Britain was aligned with theanti-Communist Nationalist Chinese government. Following the war, British priorities centred on preserving stability in China to protect over £300 million in investments; far exceeding U.S. interests in the region. While Britain agreed not to interfere in Chinese affairs as per the1945 Moscow Agreement, it remained sympathetic to theNationalists, who appeared dominant in theChinese Civil War until 1947.^[37]

However, by August 1948, the tide had turned. With the Communists gaining ground, the British government began to prepare for their potential victory. It maintained consular operations in Communist-controlled areas and declined Nationalist appeals for British assistance in defendingShanghai. By December,Whitehall concluded that although nationalisation of British assets was likely, long-term economic engagement with a stable, industrialising China could prove beneficial. SafeguardingHong Kong remained paramount, and the UK bolstered its garrison there in 1949, even as theChinese Communist Party (CCP) offered reassurances on non-interference.

On 1 October 1949, the PRC government announced its willingness to establish diplomatic relations with any nation that severed ties with the Nationalists. After consultation withCommonwealth and European partners, Britain formally recognised the PRC in January 1950.^[37]

On 20 April 1949, thePeople's Liberation Army attackedHMS Amethyst (F116) travelling to the British Embassy in Nanjing in theAmethyst incident. The CCP do not recognise theunequal treaties and protest the ship's right to sail on theYangtze.^[38][39]

Following recognition on 6 January 1950, the UK posted a chargé d'affaires in Beijing, expecting swift ambassadorial exchange. However, the PRC insisted on conditions concerning the Chinese seat at theUnited Nations and the handling of Nationalist-held foreign assets.

Meanwhile, British commercial interests began adapting to the new reality. In 1950, a consortium of British businesses formed the Group of 48 (now theChina-Britain Business Council) to facilitate trade with the PRC.^[35][40] This effort was furtherinstitutionalised with the formation of the Sino-British Trade Committee in 1954.

Military interactions between the two countries also occurred indirectly during theKorean War.British Commonwealth Forces engaged in several key battles against Chinese forces, including the defence of Hill 282 atPakchon in 1950, clashes at theImjin River in 1951, and successful engagements atKapyong, Maryang San, andYong Dong in 1953.

In a diplomatic breakthrough, aBritish Labour Party delegation led byClement Attlee visited China in 1954 at the invitation ofPRC PremierZhou Enlai.^[41] Attlee became the first high-ranking western politician to meetCCP ChairmanMao Zedong.^[42] That same year, theGeneva Conference paved the way for mutual diplomatic presence: the PRC agreed to post a chargé d’affaires in London, reopen the British office in Shanghai, and issueexit visas for British nationals detained since 1951.^[43] In 1961, the UK began to vote in the General Assembly forPRC membership of the United Nations. It had abstained on votes since 1950.^[44]

During theSuez Crisis in 1956, China condemned the UK andFrance and made strong statements insupport of Egypt.^{[45]: xxxvii}

Bilateral relations soured during China'sCultural Revolution. In June 1967,Red Guards attacked British diplomats in Beijing, and PRC authorities offered no condemnation.^[46]

Riots broke out in Hong Kong in June 1967. The commander of theGuangzhou Military Region,Huang Yongsheng, secretly suggested invading Hong Kong, but his plan was vetoed by PRC Premier Zhou Enlai.^[47] That same month, unrest spread to Hong Kong, with PRC military commanders even contemplating an invasion; though Zhou Enlai vetoed the idea.^[48] In July, Chinese troops fatally shot five Hong Kong police officers.

Hostilities escalated on 23 August 1967, when Red Guards stormed the British Legation in Beijing, injuring chargé d'affairesSir Donald Hopson and others, includingSir Percy Cradock. The attack was a reprisal for British arrests of CCP agents in Hong Kong. Days later, on 29 August, armed Chinese diplomats clashed with British police in London.^[49]

A thaw began in March 1972, when the PRC extended full diplomatic recognition to the UK, allowing for ambassadorial exchange. The UK, in turn, acknowledged the PRC's position on Taiwan.^[50]

In 1982, during negotiations over Hong Kong's future, Chineseparamount leaderDeng Xiaoping bluntly toldPrime Minister Margaret Thatcher that China could simply take the territory by force; later confirmed as a genuine consideration.^[47] These talks culminated in the1984 Sino-British Joint Declaration.

Queen Elizabeth II made a historic state visit to China in October 1986, becoming the first reigning British monarch to do so.^[51]

The most symbolic moment in the bilateral relationship came on 30 June–1 July 1997, when Hong Kong was officially handed over from the United Kingdom to the People's Republic of China, marking the end of more than 150 years of British rule.

In the 2000s, significant developments shaped China–UK relations. On 29 October 2008, the United Kingdom formally recognised Tibet as an integral part of the People's Republic of China, marking a shift from its earlier position, which had only acknowledged Chinese suzerainty over the region.^[52]

In November 2005, China and the UK signed a series of bilateral agreements, including announcing an initiative to jointly create "the world's first carbon neutral eco-city."^[53]: 161 The contemplated development,Dongtan Eco-City, was not ultimately completed.^{[54]: 163–164} It later influenced other approaches toChinese eco-cities.^{[54]: 163–164}

Further strengthening bilateral ties,General Secretary of the Chinese Communist Party andPresident Xi Jinping andPeng Liyuan paid a state visit to the UK from 20 to 23 October 2015. Their itinerary included stops in London andManchester, with engagements involvingQueen Elizabeth II and then-Prime MinisterDavid Cameron. The visit culminated in the signing of trade deals valued at over £30 billion, symbolising deepening economic cooperation between the two nations.^[55][56][57]

This spirit of engagement continued underPrime Minister Theresa May, who travelled to China in February 2018 for a three-day trade mission. During the visit, she met with Xi Jinping, affirming the continuation of what was described as the "Golden Era" in UK–China relations.^[58]

Both countries share common membership of theG20, theUNSCP5, theUnited Nations, and theWorld Trade Organization. Bilaterally the two countries have a Double Taxation Agreement,^[59] an Investment Agreement,^[60] and theSino-British Joint Declaration.

Throughout the 2020s, relations between China and the United Kingdom became increasingly strained, marked by disputes over human rights, national security, and espionage.

Tensions rose sharply in 2020 when the UK openly opposed China's imposition of theHong Kong national security law.Lord Patten, the last British governor of Hong Kong, described the move as a breach of the "one country, two systems" framework and a violation of the Sino-British Joint Declaration.^[61][62]Prime Minister Boris Johnson echoed this sentiment in Parliament, calling the law a "clear and serious breach" of the joint declaration. In response, the UK government announced a pathway to full British citizenship for around three million Hong Kong residents holdingBritish National (Overseas) status.^[63] That same year, the UK suspended its extradition treaty with China, citing concerns over the treatment of theUyghur minority inXinjiang.^[64]

Also in 2020, citing security concerns, the UK government banned the use ofHuawei's equipment in its 5G infrastructure.^[65] The following year, the UK implemented a visa scheme forHongkongers affected by the national security law, resulting in over 200,000 Hong Kong residents relocating to Britain.^[66]

In April 2021, a cross-party group of MPs, led bySir Iain Duncan Smith, passed a parliamentary motion declaring China's mass detention ofUyghur Muslims in Xinjiang as genocide. This made the UK the fourth country globally to make such a declaration. In retaliation, China's embassy in London condemned the accusation as “the most preposterous lie of the century” and accused the UK of interfering in its internal affairs.^[67]

UK-China relations were further tested in October 2022, when Chinese consulate officials in Manchester allegedly dragged a pro-democracy protester onto consulate grounds and assaulted him.^[68] Six Chinese diplomats, including theconsul-general, were subsequently recalled by Beijing.^[69]

After becoming Prime Minister in July 2024,Keir Starmer signalled a tougher stance toward China, particularly regarding human rights abuses andChina's support for Russia during its invasion of Ukraine.^[70] However, diplomatic efforts to restore dialogue continued. In November 2024, Starmer met Chinese leader Xi Jinping at theG20 summit in an attempt to reset relations, balancing economic cooperation with national security concerns. The meeting was marred by an incident in which British journalists were forcibly removed by Chinese officials as Starmer raised human rights issues.^[71][72]

In January 2025,UK Chancellor Rachel Reeves visited China in an effort to stabilise economic ties and normalise relations.^[73] Yet friction persisted. In April 2025, the UK government introduced emergency legislation to prevent the closure ofBritish Steel’sScunthorpe plant by its Chinese owner,Jingye Group, citing national security reasons.^[74][75] In a rare Saturday sitting, Parliament passed the law allowing the government to take control of the site, with Prime Minister Starmer framing the move as essential for national and economic security.^[76][77] In May 2025, theNational Health Service launched an investigation into breaches of two NHS hospitals targeted by Chinese state-linked hackers.^[78] In September 2025, theEastern Theater Command of the PLA accused Britain of "trouble-making and provocation" when it and the U.S. jointly sailed warships through theTaiwan Strait.^[79]

In October 2025 theDirector of Public Prosecutions controversially dropped charges under theOfficial Secrets Act 1911 against Christopher Cash and Christopher Berry. Cash had been a Parliamentary researcher forAlicia KearnsMP. He had also been director of theConservative MP'sChina Research Group.^[80]

In 1954, UK Foreign MinisterAnthony Eden and PRC Premier Zhou Enlai reached an agreement to exchangecharges d'affaires.^[81]: 93 As a result of the Korean War and other disagreements, the two countries did not exchange ambassadors until 1972.^[81]: 93

British counter-terrorism authorities have reported a rise in hostile state activity linked to China within the United Kingdom, with operations allegedly involving threats to life such as planned attacks and covert actions. In July 2025, Dominic Murphy, head of London'sCounter Terrorism Command, stated that the breadth, complexity, and volume of hostile operations from China among other countries had grown at a rate that neither British authorities, their international partners, nor the wider intelligence community had predicted. Officials also highlighted the increasing use of criminal proxies and vulnerable individuals, including minors, in carrying out these activities. Specific details regarding China's involvement were not disclosed.^[82]

In July 2025, the UKJoint Committee on Human Rights labelled the China a "flagrant" perpetrator oftransnational repression and presented a series of recommended responses to the UK government.^[83]

All three major Chinese airlines,Air China,China Eastern &China Southern fly between the UK and China, principally betweenLondon-Heathrow and the three major air hubs ofBeijing,Shanghai andGuangzhou. China Southern also flies between Heathrow andWuhan. Among China's other airlines;Hainan Airlines flies betweenManchester and Beijing,Beijing Capital Airlines offers Heathrow toQingdao, whileTianjin Airlines offers flights betweenTianjin,Chongqing andXi'an toLondon-Gatwick. Hong Kong's flag carrierCathay Pacific also flies betweenHong Kong to Heathrow, Gatwick and Manchester. The British flag carrierBritish Airways flies to just three destinations in China; Beijing, Shanghai and Hong Kong, and in the pastChengdu. RivalVirgin Atlantic flies between Heathrow to Shanghai and Hong Kong. British Airways has mentioned that it is interested in leasing China's newComac C919 in its pool of aircraft of Boeing and Airbus.^[89]

In January 2017,China Railways andDB Cargo launched theYiwu-London Railway Line connecting the city ofYiwu and the London borough ofBarking, and creating the longest railway freight line in the world. Hong Kong'sMTR runs the London'sTfL Rail service and has a 30% stake inSouth Western Railway. In 2017, train manufacturerCRRC won a contract to build 71 engineering wagons forLondon Underground. This is the first time a Chinese manufacturer has won a railway contract.^[90]

The weekly-published Europe edition ofChina Daily is available in a few newsagents in the UK, and on occasions a condensed version calledChina Watch is published in theDaily Telegraph.^[91] The monthlyNewsChina,^[92] the North American English-language edition ofChina Newsweek (中国新闻周刊) is available in a few branches ofWHSmith. Due to local censorship, British newspapers and magazines are not widely available in mainland China, however theEconomist andFinancial Times are available in Hong Kong.^{[citation needed]}

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• Trotter, Ann.Britain and East Asia 1933–1937 (1975)online.
• Wolf, David C. "`To Secure a Convenience': Britain Recognizes China— 1950."Journal of Contemporary History 18 (April 1983): 299–326.online
• Xiang, Lanxin.Recasting the imperial Far East : Britain and America in China, 1945-1950 (1995)online

• Lin Zexu,Deng Tingzhen 鄧廷楨 (1839)["Letter to the Queen of England from the imperial commissioner and the provincial authorities requiring the interdiction of opium"], translation published inThe Chinese Repository volume 8, number 1, May 1839, p. 9; alsoavailable at HathiTrust; animage of the original letter is also available
• Ruxton, Ian (ed.),The Diaries of Sir Ernest Satow, British Envoy in Peking (1900–06) in two volumes, Lulu Press Inc., April 2006ISBN 978-1-4116-8804-9 (Volume One);ISBN 978-1-4116-8805-6 (Volume Two)fu

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