 | |
 Mongolia |  China |
|---|---|
| Diplomatic mission | |
| Embassy of Mongolia, Beijing | Embassy of China, Ulaanbaatar |
| Envoy | |
| Ambassador Tuvshin Badral | Ambassador Shen Minjuan |
Diplomatic relations betweenPeople's Republic of China andMongolia were formally established in October 1949. During theCold War, relations were determined by the relations between China and theSoviet Union, Mongolia'sother neighbour and main ally untilearly 1990. With the rapprochement between the USSR and China in the late 1980s, Chinese-Mongolian relations also began to improve. Since the 1990s, China has become Mongolia's biggest trading partner, and a number of Chinese businesses operate in Mongolia.
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TheHan andMongol (as well as their ancestors, theProto-Mongols) peoples have been in contact with each other for millennia.
Throughout history, polities in theCentral Plains and theMongolian Plateau have had complicated relations. TheGreat Wall was constructed to ward off attacks by nomads from the north, notably during theHan andMing dynasties. TheTang dynasty, following its defeat of theXueyantuo, established theProtectorate General to Pacify the North in 647 to rule theMongolian Plateau.
In 1271, the Mongols underKublai Khan, grandson ofGenghis Khan, established theYuan dynasty as a Chinese dynasty and conquered all ofChina proper in 1279. In 1368, the Ming dynasty successfully overthrew the Yuan dynasty and the remnant Yuan imperial court was forced to retreat north, thereby forming theNorthern Yuan dynasty.
TheMing Great Wall was strengthened and the period was characterized by repeated Ming raids into Northern Yuan territory and vice versa. During thetransition from Ming to Qing, the last monarch of all MongolsLigdan Khan allied with the Ming against theQing dynasty until Ligdan was defeated by Qing forces andInner Mongolia was conquered by theManchus in 1635. In 1644, the Ming dynasty was overthrown by peasant rebels underLi Zicheng, who established the short-livedShun dynasty which would soon be defeated by the Qing dynasty. After 1691,Outer Mongolia were incorporated into the Qing empire during theDzungar–Qing Wars.
Bogd Khanate in Outer Mongolia declared its independence in 1911 after more than 200 years of Qing rule.[1] TheRepublic of China was established in 1912 after the fall of the Qing dynasty. During this period, theBeiyang government of the Republic of China, as the successor to the Qing, claimed Outer Mongolia as Chinese territory. This claim was provided for in theImperial Edict of the Abdication of the Qing Emperor signed by theEmpress Dowager Longyu on behalf of the six-year-oldXuantong Emperor: "[...] the continued territorial integrity of the lands of the five races,Manchu, Han, Mongol,Hui, andTibetan into one great Republic of China" ([...]仍合滿、漢、蒙、回、藏五族完全領土，為一大中華民國).[2][3][4] However, the Chinese government lacked any stable control over the region due to massive civil wars in the south and the rise of regional warlords in theWarlord Era. Consequently, Outer Mongolia sought Russian support to claim its independence. In 1919, Chinese generalXu Shuzheng advanced into Outer Mongolia andannulled its independence. In 1921, Chinese forces were driven out byWhite Russian forces led by BaronRoman von Ungern-Sternberg.[5] Some months later they were driven out by theRed Army of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic, the Far Eastern Republic and pro-Soviet Mongolian forces. In 1924, theMongolian People's Republic was proclaimed. With the onset of theSecond Sino-Japanese War, little effort was given to reestablish Chinese control over Outer Mongolia.[citation needed]
Following the end of World War II, the Republic of China, led by theKuomintang, was forced to formally accept Outer Mongolian independence under Soviet pressure. Recognition of Mongolian independence was stipulated in the Sino-Soviet agreement of August 14, 1945. The Chinese governmentofficially recognized Mongolian independence in January 1946.[6] In 1949, theChinese Communist Party won theChinese Civil War and maintained the policy of recognizing Mongolia's independent status.
The People's Republic of China establisheddiplomatic relations with Mongolia on October 16, 1949, and both nations signed a border treaty in 1962.[7] With theSino-Soviet split, Mongolia aligned itself with the Soviet Union and asked for the deployment of Soviet forces, leading to security concerns in China.[8] As a result, bilateral ties remained tense until 1984, when a high-level Chinese delegation visited Mongolia and both nations started to survey and demarcate their borders. Mongolian General SecretaryJambyn Batmönkh, during a meeting with PresidentKim Il sung while on astate visit toPyongyang in November 1986 states that "renewing the development of China-Mongolian relations is important for our two countries’ people's common interest".[9] In 1986, a series of agreements to bolster trade and establish transport and air links was signed.[8] In 1988, both nations signed a treaty on border control.[10] Mongolia also started a more independent policy and pursued more friendly ties with China.[8]
In the post-Cold War era, China has taken major steps to normalise its relationship with Mongolia, emphasizing its respect for Mongolia's sovereignty and independence. In 1994,Chinese PremierLi Peng signed a treaty of friendship and cooperation. China has become Mongolia's biggest trade partner and source offoreign investment.[11] Bilateral trade reached US$1.13 billion by the first nine months of 2007, registering an increase of 90% from 2006.[12] China offered Mongolia permission to use thePort of Tianjin, allowing access to trade within theAsia Pacific region.[11] China also expanded its investments in Mongolia's mining industries, giving it access to the country's natural resources.[11][12]
Mongolia participates in theBelt and Road Initiative.[13] The BRI has been an important factor in the growing Mongolian view that China is an economic partner rather than a threat to its territorial integrity.[14]: 208 Mongolia cooperates in the development of theChina-Mongolia-Russia Economic Corridor, one of the six major land corridors of the BRI.[15]: 39 In January 2024, Mongolia stated that it seeks to institute a summit where the three countries can further develop economic opportunities, including the corridor.[16]
In January 2024, Mongolian Prime MinisterLuvsannamsrai Oyun-Erdene described relations between Mongolia and China as at their highest level and described the two countries as working towards a comprehensive strategic partnership.[16]
The Gashuunsukhait–Gantsmod railway is a 19.5 km cross-border extension of the existing Sino-Mongolian rail network, first proposed in 2009. In May 2025, Mongolia's parliament ratified a strategic partnership with China to construct the link, work formally beginning on 14 May 2025, with the aim of eliminating the need for truck haulage across the border. Once operational, the new connection was expected to increase annual coal transport capacity by 30 million tonnes, facilitate the expansion of theTavan Tolgoi coal mine, and, if later integrated with the Khangi–Mandal and Shiveekhüren–Sekhen crossings, could raise Mongolia's total coal-export capacity to 120 million tonnes by 2030. Construction was set to be overseen by Mongolia's state-ownedErdenes-Tavantolgoi JSC andChina Energy.[17]
Mongolia follows theone China principle, and recognizesgovernment of the People's Republic of China as the sole legal government representing the whole of China and Taiwan as "an inalienable part" of China. Mongolia also supports all efforts by the PRC to "achieve peacefulnational reunification" and considers issues related toHong Kong,Xinjiang andTibet as internal affairs of China.[18]
On August 14, 1945, the Chinese government agreed to recognize the independence of Mongolia if Mongolians approved of independence from China in a referendum. Mongolians voted overwhelmingly for independence in a referendum held on October 20, 1945. The government of the Republic of China formally recognized the independence of Mongolia on January 5, 1946.
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