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Chibchan languages

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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Language family of Central and South America

For other uses, seeChibcha language (disambiguation).

Chibchan
Geographic distribution	Mosquitia,Panama, andColombia
Native speakers	257,500^[1] (2007)
Linguistic classification	Macro-Chibchan ? Chibchan
Subdivisions	Pech Isthmus Votic Magdalena
Language codes
ISO 639-5	`cba`
Glottolog	`chib1249`
Distribution of the Chibcha languages

TheChibchan languages (also known asChibchano) is alanguage family indigenous to theIsthmo-Colombian Area, ageo-cultural region extending fromMosquitia in eastern Central America to northern Colombia, and encompassing parts of Costa Rica and Panama. The name is derives from the now-extinctChibcha orMuisca language, once spoken on theAltiplano Cundiboyacense present day Colombia. Recent genetic and linguistic evidence now indicate that the original nucleus of Chibchan languages and peoples might not have been in Colombia, but along the south-eastern coast ofMosquitia, where the greatest diversity of Chibchan languages has been identified.^[2]

External relations

[edit]

A larger family calledMacro-Chibchan, which would contain theMisumalpan languages,Xinca, andLenca, was found convincing by Kaufman (1990).^[3]

Based primarily on evidence from grammatical morphemes, Pache (2018, 2023) suggests a distant relationship with theMacro-Jê languages.^[4]^[5]

A map showing approximately two dozen Chibchan languages in their approximate locations throughout Central America and northern South America

Language contact

[edit]

Jolkesky (2016) notes that there are lexical similarities with theAndaki,Barbakoa,Choko,Duho,Paez,Sape, andTaruma language families due to contact.^[6]

Classification

[edit]

The Costa Rican linguistAdolfo Constenla Umaña proposes atypology of Chibchan languages in four branches. From north to south,

Chibchan
- A
  - Waimí (Guaymi)
    - Guaymí (Ngäbere, Movere) – 170,000 speakers, vulnerable inPanama, endangered inCosta Rica
    - Buglere (Bokotá) – 18,000 speakers, endangered
  - †Borũca (Brunca)
  - Talamanca
    - †Huetar (Güetar)
    - Bribri (Talamanca), 7,000 speakers – vulnerable inCosta Rica, endangered inPanama
    - Cabécar (Talamanca) – 8,800 speakers, vulnerable
    - Teribe (Norteño) – 3,300 speakers, endangered
- B
  - Pech (Paya) – 990 speakers, endangered
  - †Dorasque
  - Votic
    - Rama – 740 speakers, moribund
    - Maléku (Guatuso) – 750 speakers, endangered
    - †Corobicí – northwestern Costa Rica
    - †Voto
  - Guna–Colombian
    - Guna (Dulegaya) – 60,600 speakers, vulnerable inPanama, endangered inColombia
    - Chibcha–Motilon
      - Barí (Motilón) – 5,000 speakers, vulnerable
      - Chibcha–Tunebo
        †Muisca
        †Duit
        U'wa (Tunebo) – 2,550 speakers, endangered
        †Guane – Colombia
    - Arwako–Chimila
      - Chimila – 350 speakers, endangered
      - Arwako
        Wiwa (Malayo, Guamaca) – 1,850 speakers, endangered
        †Kankuamo
        Arhuaco (Ikʉ) – 8,000 speakers, vulnerable
        Kogi (Cogui) – 9,910 speakers, vulnerable

The extinct languages ofAntioquia,Old Catío andNutabe have been shown to be Chibchan (Adelaar & Muysken, 2004:49). Thelanguage of the Tairona is unattested, apart from a single word,^{[citation needed]} but may well be one of the Arwako languages still spoken in the Santa Marta range. It is said to be used by theKogi people as a shamanistic ritual language.^[7] TheZenú a.k.a. Sinú language of northern Colombia is also sometimes included, as are the Malibu languages, though without any factual basis. Zenú is also sometimes linked with the Chocoan languages.^[8]

Adolfo Constenla Umaña argues thatCueva, the extinct dominant language of Pre-Columbian Panama long assumed to be Chibchan based on a misinterpreted Guna vocabulary, was actuallyChocoan, but there is little evidence.

TheCofán language (Kofán, Kofane, A'ingae) of Ecuador and Colombia has been erroneously included in Chibchan due to borrowed vocabulary.

Monument to the Tairona people inSanta Marta

On the basis of shared grammatical innovations, Pache (2023) argues thatPech is most closely related to the Arhuacic languages of northern Colombia, forming a Pech-Arhuacic subgroup.^[9]

Loukotka (1968)

[edit]

Below is a full list of Chibchan language varieties listed byLoukotka (1968), including names of unattested varieties.^[10] Loukotka also included other language families, likeBarbacoan,Kamëntšá (Camsá), andPaezan, which are no longer accepted as Chibchan.

Chibchan language varieties listed byLoukotka (1968)

Rama group

Rama – language spoken aroundBluefields Lagoon and on theRama River, Nicaragua.
Melchora – extinct language once spoken on theSan Juan Melchoras River, Nicaragua. (Unattested.)

Guatuso group

Guatuso – spoken on theFrío River, Costa Rica, now perhaps extinct.
Guetar /Brusela – extinct language once spoken on the Grande River, Costa Rica.
Suerre /Camachire /Chiuppa – extinct language once spoken on theTortuguero River, Costa Rica. (Benzoni 1581, p. 214, only five words.)
Pocosi – extinct language once spoken on theMatina River and around the modern city ofPuerto Limón, Costa Rica. (Unattested.)
Voto – extinct language once spoken at the mouth of theSan Juan River, Costa Rica. (Unattested.)
Quepo – extinct language once spoken in Costa Rica on thePacuare River. (W. Lehmann 1920, vol. 1, p. 238, only one single word.)
Corobisi /Corbesi /Cueresa /Rama de Rio Zapote – spoken by a few individuals in Costa Rica on theZapote River. (Alvarez in Conzemius 1930, pp. 96–99.)

Talamanca group

Terraba /Depso /Quequexque /Brurán – extinct language once spoken in Costa Rica on theTenorio River.
Tirub /Rayado /Tiribi – extinct language spoken once in Costa Rica on theVirilla River.
Bribri /Lari – spoken on theCoca River andTarire River, Costa Rica.
Estrella – Spanish name of an extinct language, the original name of which is unknown, once spoken on theEstrella River, Costa Rica.
Cabecar – language spoken on theMoy River, Costa Rica.
Chiripó – language spoken in Costa Rica on theMatina River andChirripó River.
Viceyta /Abiseta /Cachi /Orosi /Tucurrique – extinct language once spoken on theTarire River, Costa Rica.
Brunca /Boruca /Turucaca – extinct language of Costa Rica, spoken on the Grande River and in theBoruca region.
Coto /Cocto – extinct language once spoken between the sources of theCoto River and Grande River, Costa Rica. (Unattested.)

Dorasque group

Chumulu – extinct language once spoken inEl Potrero, Veraguas (Potrero de Vargas), Panama.
Gualaca – extinct language once spoken on theChiriqui River, Panama.
Changuena – once spoken in Panama, on theChanguena River.

Guaymi group

Muoi – extinct language once spoken in the Miranda Valley of Panama.
Move /Valiente – now spoken on theGuaymi River and in theVeragua Peninsula.
Norteño – dialect without an aboriginal name, spoken on the northern coast of Panama, now perhaps extinct.
Penonomeño – once spoken in the village ofPenonomé.
Murire /Bucueta /Boncota /Bogota – spoken in the Serranía deTabasara by a few families.
Sabanero /Savaneric /Valiente – extinct dialect without aboriginal name, once spoken on the plains south of the Serranía deTabasara.
Pariza – extinct dialect spoken in the Conquest days on theVeragua Peninsula. (G. Espinosa 1864, p. 496, only one single word.)

Cuna group

Coiba – extinct language once spoken on theChagres River, Panama. (W. Lehmann 1920, vol. I, pp. 112–122; A. Santo Tomas 1908, pp. 124–128, only five words.)
Cuna /Bayano /Tule /Mandingo /San Blas /Karibe-Kuna /Yule – language spoken in eastern Panama, especially on theBayano River, inSan Blas and the small islands on the northern coast.
Cueva /Darien – extinct language Once spoken at the mouth of theAtrato River, Colombia.
Chochama – extinct language once spoken on theSuegro River, Panama. (Unattested.)

Antioquia group

Guazuzú – once spoken in the Sierra deSan Jerónimo, department of Antioquia, Colombia. (Unattested.)
Oromina /Zeremoe – extinct language once spoken south of theGulf of Urabá, Antioquia, Colombia. (Unattested.)
Catio – once spoken in the region ofDabaiba, Colombia. (only a few words.)
Hevejico – once spoken in theTonusco andEbéjico Valleys. (Unattested.)
Abibe – once spoken in the Sierra de Abibe. (Unattested.)
Buritaca – once spoken at the sources of theSucio River. (Unattested.)
Caramanta – once spoken around the city ofCaramanta.
Cartama – once spoken around the modern city ofCartama. (Unattested.)
Pequi – once spoken in thePequi region. (Unattested.)
Arma – once spoken on thePueblanco River. (Unattested.)
Poze – once spoken on thePozo River andPacova River. (Cieza de Leon 1881, p. 26, only one single word.)
Nutabé – once spoken in the San Andrés Valley.
Tahami – once spoken on theMagdalena River andTora River. (Unattested.)
Yamesi – once spoken at the mouth of theNechi River and on thePorce River. (Simon 1882–1892, vol. 5, p. 80, only one single word.)
Avurrá – once spoken in theAburrá Valley. (Piedrahita (Fernandez de Piedrahita) 1688, cap. 2, f. 9, only one single word.)
Guamoco – once spoken around the modern city ofZaragoza, Antioquia. (Unattested.)
Anserma /Humbra /Umbra – once spoken on theCauca River around the city ofAnserma, Caldas. (J. Robledo 1865, pp. 389 and 392, only a few words.)
Amachi – once spoken in the San Bartolomé Valley. (Unattested.)

Chibcha group

Chibcha /Muisca /Mosca – extinct language once spoken on the upper plateau of Bogotá andTunja, department of Cundinamarca, Colombia.
- Duit dialect – once spoken on theTunja River andTundama River.
Tunebo /Tame – language now spoken by many tribes living in the area east of the Chibcha tribe. Dialects:
- Tegría – spoken on theTegría River, department of Boyaca. (Rochereau 1926–1927, 1946–1950, 1959.)
- Pedraza – spoken on thePedraza River.
- Boncota – spoken on theBoncota River.
- Manare – spoken on theManare River.
- Sinsiga /Chita – spoken in the village ofChita, Boyacá and on theChisca River.
- Uncasica – spoken in theSierra Librada.
- Morcote – spoken on theTocaría River and in the village ofMorcote. (Unattested.)
Chitarero – extinct language once spoken around the modern city ofPamplona, department of Santander. (Unattested.)
Lache – extinct language once spoken on theChicamocha River and in the Sierra deChita, department of Boyacá. (Unattested.)

Motilon group

Dobocubí /Motilon – spoken on theTarra River and around the old mission ofAtacarayo, department of Norte de Santander, Colombia.
Bartra /Cunaguasáya – spoken by a tribe on theOro River,Rincón River, and Lora River in theNorte de Santander region.
Mape – spoken by a little known tribe on theCatatumbo River andAgua Blanca River in theNorte de Santander region and in the state of Zulia, Venezuela.

Arhuaco (Arwako) group

Tairona /Teyuna – extinct language once spoken on theFrio River and on the Caribbean coast,department of Magdalena, Colombia, now a secret language of the priests in the Cagaba tribe.
Zyuimakane – extinct language once spoken on theVolador River in the same region. (Unattested.)
Bungá – extinct language once spoken on the Santa Clara River. (Unattested.)
Ulabangui – once spoken on theNegro River, in the Santa Clara River region. (Unattested.)
Cashingui – once spoken on thePalomino River. (Unattested.)
Masinga – once spoken on the Bonda River, in thePalomino River region. (Unattested.)
Bonda /Matuna – once spoken on the Bonda River and Santa María River. (Holmer 1953a, p. 313, only one single word; Preuss 1927, only a few toponyms.)
Cágaba /Köggaba /Kaugia /Koghi – language spoken in theSierra Nevada de Santa Marta in the villages of San Andrés, San Miguel, San José, Santa Rosa, and Pueblo Viejo.
Guamaca /Nábela /Sanha /Arsario – spoken in theSierra Nevada de Santa Marta region in the villages of El Rosario,Potrerito, andMarocaso.
Bintucua /Ijca /Ika /Iku /Machaca /Vintukva – spoken in theSierra Nevada de Santa Marta region in the village of San Sebastián (nearAtanquez).
Atanque /Campanaque /Busintana /Buntigwa /Kallwama – spoken in theSierra Nevada de Santa Marta, in the village ofAtanquez.
Upar /Eurpari /Giriguana – extinct language once spoken on theCésar River. (Unattested.)
Cariachil – once spoken between theMolino River andFonseca River. (Unattested.)
Ocanopán /Itoto – once spoken aroundCerro Pintado. (Unattested.)

Paya group

Paya /Poyuai /Seco – language spoken on theGuayape River and between thePatuca River andSico River, Honduras.

Jolkesky (2016)

[edit]

Internal classification by Jolkesky (2016):^[6]

(† = extinct)

Chibcha
- Pech
- Votic
  - Maleku
  - Rama
  - †Wetar
- Isthmus
  - Boruka-Talamanca
    - Boruka
    - Talamanca
      - Teribe
      - Bribri-Kabekar
        Bribri
        Kabekar
  - Doraske-Changena
    - †Changena
    - †Doraske
  - Guaymi
    - Buglere
    - Ngäbe
  - Kuna
    - Kuna Paya-Pukuro
    - Kuna San Blas
- Magdalena
  - Barí
  - Chimila
  - †Nutabe
  - U'wa
  - Muisca
    - †Guane
    - Muisca
  - Sierra de Santa Marta
    - Kaggaba
    - †Tairona
    - Wiwa-Ika
      - Ika
      - †Kankuamo
      - Wiwa

Proto-language

[edit]

Proto-Chibchan
Reconstruction of	Chibchan languages

Pache (2018) is the most recent reconstruction of Proto-Chibchan.^[4] Other reconstructions include Holt (1986).^[11]

Below are Proto-Chibchan vowels according to Pache (2018).^[4] The vowels in parentheses (*ĩ, *e, *o and *õ) appear to have been marginal in the proto-language.

	Front	Central	Back
High	i, (ĩ)		u, ũ
Mid	*(e)		(o), (õ)
Low		a, ã

Below are Proto-Chibchan consonants as described by Pache (2018).^[4] Notably, the proto-language lacked separate nasal stop phonemes and had one liquid consonant, *L, whose exact pronunciation is unknown. Pache speculates it could have been realized as one or more of the following: [ɾ, ɽ, ɺ, l, r].

		Labial	Coronal	Velar	Labiovelar	Glottal
Stop	plain	*p	*t	*k	*kʷ	*ʔ
Stop	prenasal	*ᵐb	*ⁿd	*ᵑɡ	*ᵑɡʷ
Affricate			*ts
Fricative			*s			*h
Liquid			*L

Constenla (1981)

[edit]

Proto-Chibchan reconstructions byConstenla (1981):^[12]

Proto-Chibchan reconstructions by Constenla (1981)

gloss	Proto-Chibchan
arm, hand, shoulder	ˈkuíkI, ˈkuí-
ashes	bur-, buˈrṹ
at, in	skA; ki; *sə
at, in, towards	*ka
big (size or quantity)	*təˈĩ
bird	*dù
blood	*ApÍ
boat, craft	*huˈLù
body	*AˈpÀ
bone	*ˈkàrə
breasts	*kAʔ
breast	ˈtsúʔ, ˈtsúʔtsú
brother	*səˈkə
brother-in-law	ˈuba; ˈduáʔ
butterfly	kuA-, kuAʔ-
cedar (several trees of theCedrela genus)	*uˈru
ceiba	puLí, puLíkI
child, young of an animal, egg	*əˈrə̀
child, young of an animal	*ˈuÁʔ-
cloth	*ˈsuá-
cloud	ˈbõ̀, bo-
cockroach	*ˈsóx-
cocoa	*kə́ˈhùʔ
come	ˈda-; ˈdI-
cook	*ˈdu-
cotton	*suˈhí
cough, catarrh	*ˈtóʔ
crocodile	*ˈkú-
cultivated field	*ˈtÌ
curassow (Crax rubra)	*ˈdubÍ
deer	ˈsur, ˈsurĩ̀
diminutive	*-ˈaːrə
dog	*ˈto
dove (common ground dove)	*ˈÚtu-
dry	*diˈsə-
dry season	*ˈduá-
eagle, hawk	*ˈpṹ
ear	ˈkuhkə́, ˈkuhkuə́
eat, drink	*ˈga-
egg, sprout, suckling	*ˈpú
emerald toucanet	*dəˈkər̃ə́
enter	*ˈdok-
excrement	*ˈgã́
eye	*úb
face	*uˈbə́
father	*ˈkáka
feline	dəbə̃́; kuLÁʔ
find	*ˈkũ
finger, hand	*ˈkU
firewood, fire, coal, live coal	*ˈgÌ
first person prefix	*də̃-
fish	ˈuA; dibÃ̀
five	*sAkẽ́
flesh	*gAtA
fly	*ˈkulu
foot	*sAˈkə̃
four	*bəhˈke
fruit	*ubə́
give birth	*ˈgU-
gnat (jején)	*buˈr̃ṹʔ
go	*ˈdA-
grease	*ˈkiə́
grind	*ˈuʔ
grindstone, to sharpen	*ˈiáʔ
grow, widen	*təˈlə-
guan (bird)	*ˈkũ̀
hand	AtA; guLÀ
head, hair	*ˈtsã̀
house	*ˈhu
how many	*ˈbi
hunger	*bAˈLi
I	*ˈda
jocote (Spondias purpurea),jobo (Spondias mombin)	*bəˈrə́ʔ
kill	*ˈguə
know, see	*sũ
lake	*iAˈbÁ
laugh	*ˈhaĩ
laurel (Cordia alliodora)	*ˈBúʔ
leaf	*ˈkə́
leg	*kəˈrə
liquid	dí; ˈli
lizard	*ulíʔ
louse	*ˈkṹ
maize	*ˈIBI
make	*gU
mayo (tree)	*bèk
monkey:howler monkey	*úriʔ
monkey:spider monkey	dõ̀, do-
monkey:white-faced monkey	*hòkI
moon, month	*siˈhíʔ
mother-in-law	*ˈgAkA
mouse	*ˈsuhkÌ
mouth	*ˈkahkə
mud	ˈdÚ; oˈr̃i
name	*ˈhaká
nape, neck	*duˈkurə
neck	*ˈgala
net	*kAˈlÁʔ
nose	*dəˈIkI
now	*ˈBə
old	AˈkÍkI; tAˈlá
one	*ˈé ?
otter	*doʔ
paca (Agouti paca)	*ˈkuri
peachpalm (Bactris gasipaes,Guilelma utilis)	*ˈsúbaʔ
peccary (Tayassu pecari spiradens)	*siˈdĩ́ʔ
peel, undress	*ˈsu-
person	*ApÍ-
place, time, environment, land	*ˈká
plant	*ˈdi
poró tree,elequeme tree (synonyms)	*baˈlò
pot, vessel, jar	*ˈũ
pumpkin, squash	*Apì
rattle, maraca, colander, gourd cup (= object elaborated from a gourd)	*ˈtã́
reed	*kəˈru
rotten	*ˈdṹ
sand	ˈu; ˈuBA
say	ˈguA-; ˈgI
sea	*dAgÌ
second person prefix	*bi-
see	*ˈguəkI
seek	*ˈdí
seed, plant	*ˈpkua
seize, hold	*kaLUh-
seven	*ˈkúh-
shark	*tAˈLì
shrimp	*ˈkUs
sing	*ˈtA
six	*ˈted
skin, bark	*hukə́
sleep	*kAp-
small	*ˈ¢id
smell, odor	*hALÀ
snake	*tAkAbÌ
soil, earth, dirt, clay	*ˈtÁBA
son	*gAbÀ
spider	*óhk
squirrel	*kudã́
star	*bÌ-
stick (a spear), insert, put in	*ˈtsã
stone	*ˈhákI
sun	dì; ˈka; *dui
sweet	*bəˈlóʔ
tail	*ˈduhkI
tapir	*dAĩ́ʔ
take	*ˈgúʔ
tear	*ˈubə́diə
that	ˈhéʔ; ˈse; ˈkue; ˈdiÀ
third person	i-; A
this	ˈdi-; ˈhíʔ
three	*ˈbai
tobacco	ˈdu, ˈduə̀
tongue	pkúʔ, ˈpkuə́
tooth	ˈtu; aˈkə
toucan sp.	*Biˈli
tray (made of wood, used to wash)	*kuˈLIʔ
transitive verb marker	*Bə-
tree	ˈkàr; kaˈri
tree, trunk of a tree, wood	*ˈkarə́
tuber	*ˈtuʔ
turtle	kuÌ; uˈli
two	*ˈbU
uncle	*kəˈru
vulva	*ˈkÍ
water	*ˈdíʔ
we (inclusive)	*ˈsẽ́ʔ
weep	*ˈbo
what	*ˈhi
where	*biə
white	*buLu
wind	*ˈBur-
with	uA; tÁ
woodpecker	*soˈr̃o
woods, firewood	*ˈbUʔ
work	*hiBA
worm	*ˈgĩ́
you (sg.)	*ˈbáʔ
yucca	*ˈik

Proto-Chibchan horticultural vocabulary (Constenla 2012):^[13]

*dihke 'to sow'
*te¹ 'cultivated clearing'
*ike 'manioc'
*tuʔ 'tuber, yam' (Dioscorea spp.;Xanthosoma sagittifolium)
*apì 'pumpkin, squash'
*e, *ebe 'maize'
*du, *dua¹ 'tobacco'
*tã¹ 'rattles from gourd'
*toka 'gourd cup'

Pache (2018)

[edit]

Proto-Chibchan reconstructions by Pache (2018):^[4]

Proto-Chibchan reconstructions by Pache (2018)

gloss	Proto-Chibchan
all	ᵐbaⁿd-; pii-ⁿda
allative/dative	*ka
angry	*uⁿdu
arm, wing, shoulder	*kwik
armadillo	*ⁿduʔ
ashes	*ᵐbũⁿd(ũ)
aspect, imperfective	*-e
aspect, perfective	*-o
back	ⁿda(kiⁿd) ~ ta(kiⁿd); *ᵑga(ⁿda)
bad	ᵑgwahⁿd; saⁿd(a)
basket, mochila	*si
bat	*(ⁿdu-)ku(ⁿd)
to bathe, swim	hauᵐb ~ aᵐbuʔ
to be	ⁿda(i) ~ ta(i)
beam of light, heat	*ᵐbaʔ
beautiful	*ⁿdu
bee, honey	*La
bee, wasp	*ᵐbuⁿd(u)
to begin, start, first	*pahⁿd-
belly	ita ~ iⁿda ~ *iaⁿd
big	ᵐbuⁿdi ~ kuⁿdi ~ kuiⁿd(i); ᵐbu-ⁿda
bile, gall, bitter	*hakiʔ
bird, dove	*ⁿdu(ⁿd)
blood	hapi ~ apiʔ
to blow, fly	*kuʔ
body	*apa
bone, strong, hard	*kãⁿd-
bone, hard	ⁿdaⁿdi ~ ⁿdaiⁿd- / saⁿdi ~ saiⁿd-
breast, teat	kãʔ; ʦuʔ
breath, wind	*ᵐbuⁿd-
brother	ⁿdaᵐba; ⁿdaka / *saka
brother-in-law	*(ⁿd-)uᵐba
butterfly, hat	*kwahkwah
calabash	ⁿdãᵐbã / sãᵐbã; *taukaʔ
to catch, grasp	*ka
cedar	*uⁿdu
chicha	*ᵐba
chicken	*aʦa-kaⁿda
child	*ᵑgwaʔ
child, small	*ʦu
clay, mud	*(taBi-)ⁿda
cloud, fog	*ᵐba-
coal, hot coal	*kuⁿda
cold, cold substance	*ⁿdaᵐba-
cold	*ʦãĩh
to come	*ⁿda
comitative	ⁿda ~ ta; uˈa; ᵐba
to cook	Li; ⁿdu
cosmos (sky, day, time, space, earth, place)	*kaʔ(k)
creeping animal	ⁿda(ⁿd) / sa(ⁿd)
to dance	*kwi
dark	tuⁿdi ~ tuiⁿd
dative	*ia
diarrhea	*ᵑga-ⁿdi(a)
to do, make	*õ
dog	*tau
dove	*ⁿdu-ᵐba(ⁿd)
dry	ⁿdiⁿda / ⁿdisa; *puⁿd-
dust	*kaʔ(k)-puⁿd-
earth, floor, mud	*taB(a)
to eat	kuⁿdi ~ kuiⁿd
egg, offspring	*La
eight	*hap-
to enter	*ⁿdaʔ-u
excrement	*ᵑga
exterior	ᵐbaⁿd(a) ~ ᵐbat(a)
face	*ᵑgwa(k)
face, eye, fruit	*uᵐba
father	*ka(ka)
father, uncle, ancestor	*ⁿdũ(-i)
feather, wing, arm, hand	*ᵑgak
feline	ⁿdaᵐba; ku(ⁿd-)
field for cultivation	*tai
fireplace	*ᵑga-u (ka[k])
firewood	*ᵑgi
fish	ᵑgwa ~ uᵑg
flea	*ᵐbak-
foot, root	kihʦa ~ kihsa
four	*ᵐbahka(i)
friend, other	*pai
full	(hi-)iⁿda ~ (hi-)ita
to go	ᵐb-; ⁿdaʔ ~ *taʔ
god, wind	*siᵐba
to grow	kuH ~ ᵐbuH
hair, head	*ʦa
hand	haⁿd- ~ hat-
hand, arm	*ᵑguⁿdaʔ
hand, finger	*kuuʔ
to hear	*kuh
heart, liver, center	ᵐbihⁿda ~ ᵐbihta; *taH(ᵐba)
to holler	ᵐbau(ⁿd) ~ kau(ⁿd)
house	*hu
how much, how many	*ᵐbi-
human being	ᵐbaⁿdi ~ ᵐbaiⁿd
hummingbird	ᵐbiʦi ~ ᵐbisi
hunger	*ᵐbaⁿdi
I	*ⁿdaH(ⁿd)
instrumental/locative	*ⁿdi
jealous	*ᵐbau(ⁿd)
to kill	*ᵑgua
to know	*ᵑgw-
lake, rain	[*ⁿdi-ɡwa]
to laugh	*haⁿd
leaf	*ka
lightning	Guⁿdi ~ GuiHⁿd
lip	*uk-ⁿda
liquid	*ⁿdiʔ-a
liver	*haiⁿd
locative	ⁿda ~ ta; ki; ʦika ~ *tsaik
to look for, look after	*ⁿdi
louse	*kũʔ
maize	*aiB ~ aBi
manioc	*i(k)
meat, flesh	ᵑgaʔⁿda ~ ᵑgaʔta; *sih
monkey	*huⁿdĩ ~ uⁿdĩʔ
moon	*siʔ
mosquito	*ʦuiⁿd
mother-in-law, daughter-in-law	*ᵑgak
mouth	*kah-ka
mouth, vagina	*ʦipi
name	haka ~ akaʔ
nape	ⁿdu-kuⁿd(a) / ⁿdu-kus(a)
neck	*ᵑgaⁿda
net	*kaⁿdaʔ
new	(a-)ᵐbihⁿd- ~ (a-)ᵐbiht-
night, dark	*ʦii
nine, ten	*uk(a)
nominalizer	-ᵐba; -ⁿd-; *-ka
nose	*ⁿdii(k)
(older) sibling, (older) sister	*ᵑgwi
only	*ᵐbii
open	*kah
pale	*siʔ-kwa
palm	*huka
path	*hi
to peel	*suʔ
possessed	*-i
post, pole	ʦauⁿd ~ tsuⁿda
pot	*hũ
prick, sting, point	ⁿduk / suk
pumpkin, squash	*apii(s)
to put	*eʔ
raptor	*pũʔ
rattle	*taʔ
raw	*tah(-ka)
red, yellow, ripe	*taʔBa
relational element	ⁿd(i)-; ʦ(i)-
rodent, large	kuⁿdi ~ kuiⁿd
rodent, small	*suh(-kui)
rope, string	*ki
round	*ᵐbiⁿd(i)
salt	*ⁿdaᵑg
sand	*uB(V)(-ta)
to scratch, rub	*ʦuH
to see	*su
seed	*ⁿduⁿd-
seed, fruit	*kwa
seven	*kuh
side	*suuⁿd
to sit (singular)	*ʦaʔ
six	*taiⁿd-
skin	huka ~ huBa ~ kuaʔ
to sleep	*kap-
small	Buⁿd-; ʦiⁿd(a)
smell	*Laʔ
snake	takaᵐb- ~ taᵐbak
soft	*ʦiⁿdi
son, child	*ᵑgaᵐba
to sow	*ⁿdihk-
spoon, ladle	ʦuiⁿd ~ ʦuⁿdi
to stand (singular)	*ⁿdu-
stick, bone, tree	kaⁿd- ~ kat-
stomach	*ⁿduaᵐbih
stone	hak ~ kaʔ
sun, day	*ⁿdi
sun, year	*ⁿdu-
to swallow, drink, eat	-hu ~ -uʔ
sweet potato	*Baiʔ
tail	ᵐbaⁿd(a)-; ⁿduh(k)
to take	*ᵑgu
to take out, pick up	hapi ~ apiʔ
tasty	*ᵐbaⁿd-
tear	*uᵐba ⁿdiʔa
that	*a
this	hi ~ iʔ
three	*ᵐbãʔ(ĩ)
throat	*ᵐbi-ⁿdaʔ
throat, hole	kuHⁿdi ~ kuiHⁿd ~ *BuHⁿdi
tobacco	*ⁿdua
tongue	*kuʔ(-Ba)
tooth (molar)	*haka
tooth	*ⁿduʔ
turkey, largegalliform bird	*(ᵑg)uⁿd-
to turn around	ᵐbuⁿd- ~ kuⁿd-
turtle	*kwi
to twist	*ᵐbu
two	*ᵐbuuʔ
up, sky	*ᵐbii
urine	huʦi ~ huiʦ
valency-reducer	a-; aʔ-; *aⁿd-
to walk	*ⁿdai
to wash	*suh(k)
to watch	ᵑguⁿda ~ ᵑgwaⁿd
water, river	*ⁿdiʔ
to wear	*(ⁿd)iˈa
white, morning	*ᵐbuⁿd(u)
who, someone	*ⁿdi
wind	*ᵐbuⁿd-kaⁿd(a)
woman (adult)	ᵐbuⁿdi ~ ᵐbuiⁿd ~ ᵑguⁿdi ~ ᵑguiⁿd
woman (young)	*ᵐbus-
worm	*ᵑgi
wound, trace	*saⁿda
to wrap	*ᵐbaʔk
you	*ᵐbaʔ
young, sprout	*pu

References

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^Pache (2018-12-05).Contributions to Chibchan historical linguistics (Report). p. 7. Retrieved2025-04-23.
^Pache, M. J. (2018, December 5). Contributions to Chibchan historical linguistics. Retrieved from https://hdl.handle.net/1887/67094Page 18
^Kaufman, Terrence (1990). "Language History in South America: What we know and how to know more". In Payne, Doris L. (ed.).Amazonian Linguistics. Austin: University of Texas Press. pp. 13–74.ISBN 0-292-70414-3.
^^a ^b ^c ^d ^ePache, Matthias J. 2018.Contributions to Chibchan Historical Linguistics. Doctoral dissertation, Universiteit Leiden.
^Pache, Matthias (2023). "Evidence For A Chibcha-Jê Connection".International Journal of American Linguistics.89 (2):219–253.doi:10.1086/723641.ISSN 0020-7071.
^^a ^bJolkesky, Marcelo Pinho De Valhery. 2016.Estudo arqueo-ecolinguístico das terras tropicais sul-americanas Archived 2021-04-18 at theWayback Machine. Ph.D. dissertation,University of Brasília.
^Bradley, David; Campbell, Lyle; Comrie, Bernard; Goddard, Ives; Golla, Victor; Irvine, Arthur; Kaufman, Terrence; Mackenzie, J. Lachlan; Mithun, Marianne (2007), Asher, R. E.; Moseley, Christopher (eds.),Atlas of the world's languages (2nd ed.), London and New York: Routledge, Taylor & Francis Group,ISBN 978-0-415-31074-1, retrieved2024-12-17
^Moseley, Christopher; Asher, Ronald E. (1994).Atlas of the world's languages. London: Routledge.ISBN 978-0-415-01925-5.
^Pache, Matthias (2023-01-01). "Pech and the Basic Internal Classification of Chibchan".International Journal of American Linguistics.89 (1):81–103.doi:10.1086/722240.ISSN 0020-7071.
^Loukotka, Čestmír (1968).Classification of South American Indian languages. Los Angeles: UCLA Latin American Center.
^Holt, Dennis. 1986.The Development of the Paya Sound-System. Ph.D. dissertation, University of California, Los Angeles.
^Constenla Umaña, Adolfo (1981).Comparative Chibchan Phonology. Ph.D. dissertation, Department of Linguistics, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia.
^Constenla Umaña, Adolfo. 2012. Chibchan languages. In Lyle Campbell and Verónica Grondona (eds.),The Indigenous Languages of South America: A Comprehensive Guide, 391–440. Berlin: Mouton.

Bibliography

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Constenla Umaña, A. (1981).Comparative Chibchan Phonology. (Ph.D. dissertation, Department of Linguistics, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia).
Constenla Umaña, A. (1985). Las lenguas dorasque y changuena y sus relaciones genealógicas.Filologia y linguística, 11.2:81–91.
Constenla Umaña, Adolfo. (1991).Las lenguas del Área Intermedia: Introducción a su estudio areal. Editorial de la Universidad de Costa Rica, San José.
Constenla Umaña, Adolfo. (1995). Sobre el estudio diacrónico de las lenguas chibchenses y su contribución al conocimiento del pasado de sus hablantes.Boletín del Museo del Oro 38–39: 13–56.
Estudios de Lingüística Chibcha, a journal of Chibchan linguistics, is published by the Universidad de Costa Rica.
Greenberg, Joseph H. (1987).Language in the Americas. Stanford: Stanford University Press.
Headland, E. (1997).Diccionario bilingüe con una gramatica Uw Cuwa (Tunebo). Bogotá: Summer Institute of Linguistics.
Holt, Dennis (1986).The Development of the Paya Sound-System. (Ph.D. dissertation, Department of Linguistics, University of California, Los Angeles).
Margery Peña, E. (1982).Diccionario español-bribri, bribri-español. San José: Editorial Universidad de Costa Rica.
Margery Peña, E. (1989).Diccionario Cabécar-Español, Español-Cabécar. Editorial de la Universidad de Costa Rica.
Pinart, A. L. (1890).Vocabulario Castellano-Dorasque: Dialectos Chumulu, Gualaca y Changuina. (Petite Bibliothèque Américaine, 2). Paris: Ernest Leroux.
Pinart, A. L. (1892).Vocabulario Guaymie: Dialectos Move-Valiente Norteño y Guaymie Penonomeño. (Petite Bibliothèque Américaine, 3). Paris: Ernest Leroux.
Pinart, A. L. (1897).Vocabulario Guaymie: Dialectos Murıre-Bukueta, Mouı y Sabanero. (Petite Bibliothèque Américaine, 4). Paris: Ernest Leroux.
Quesada, J. Diego (2007).The Chibchan Languages. Editorial Tecnológica de Costa Rica.ISBN 9977-66-186-3.
Quesada Pacheco, M. A.; Rojas Chaves, C. (1999).Diccionario boruca-español, español-boruca. San José: Editorial de la Universidad de Costa Rica.

External links

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Wiktionary has a list of reconstructed forms atAppendix:Proto-Chibchan reconstructions

Comparative Chibchan phonology — 1981 dissertation by Adolfo Constenla.

v t e Chibchan languages
Waimí (Guaymi)	Buglere Ngäbere
Talamanca	Bribri Cabécar Huetar Teribe
Votic	Corobicí ? Maléku Rama Voto
Kuna–Colombian	Barí Chibcha Duit Guna Uwa
Arwako–Chimila	Arhuaco Atanque-Kankuamo Chimila Kogi Tairona ? Wiwa
Other	Borũca Dorasque Nutabe–Old Catio Pech
Italics indicateextinct languages

v t e Language families ofMesoamerica
Demonstrated families	Chibchan Chocoan Jicaquean Lencan Mayan Misumalpan Mixe–Zoque Oto-Manguean Tequistlatecan Totonacan Uto-Aztecan Xincan
Isolates	Cuitlatec Huave Purépecha (Alagüilac?) (Chontal?) (Chumbia?) (Cueva?) (Otomi?) (Zapotec?)
Proposed macrofamilies	Hokan Macro-Mayan Macro-Chibchan Penutian Tolatecan Totozoquean
Linguistic areas	Mesoamerican language area

Primary language families

Africa

Afroasiatic Austronesian Khoe–Kwadi Kx'a Niger–Congo? Atlantic–Congo Dogon Ijoid Katloid Kru Lafofa Mande Rashad Siamou Talodi–Heiban? Ubangian? Nilo-Saharan? Berta Bʼaga Central Sudanic Daju Eastern Jebel Furan Kadu Koman Gule Kresh Kuliak Kunama Nara Nilotic Nubian Nyima Maban Mimi of Decorse Saharan Songhay Surmic Taman Temein Tuu
Isolates	Bangime Hadza Jalaa Laal Meroitic? Ongota Sandawe Shabo

Eurasia
(Europe
andAsia)

Afroasiatic
Ainu
Austroasiatic
Austronesian
Chukotko-Kamchatkan
Dravidian
Eskaleut
Great Andamanese
Hmong–Mien
Hurro-Urartian
Indo-European
Japonic
Kartvelian
Koreanic
Kra–Dai
Mongolic
Nivkh
Northeast Caucasian
Northwest Caucasian
Ongan
Sino-Tibetan
Tungusic
Turkic
Tyrsenian
Uralic
Xiongnu
Yeniseian
Yukaghir
Arunachal?
- Digaro?
- Kho-Bwa?
- Mijiic?
- Miju?
- Siangic?

Isolates

New Guinea
andthe Pacific

Isolates

Australia

Bunuban Eastern Daly Eastern Tasmanian Garawan Gunwinyguan Iwaidjan Jarrakan Maningrida Mirndi Northeastern Tasmanian Northern Tasmanian Nyulnyulan Pama–Nyungan Southern Daly Tangkic Wagaydyic (Northern Daly?) Western Daly Western Tasmanian Worrorran Arnhem/Macro-Gunwinyguan? Darwin Region? Marrku–Wurrugu? Yangmanic–Wagiman?
Isolates	Giimbiyu Malak-Malak (Northern Daly?) Tiwi Wagiman Wardaman Gaagudju? Kungarakany?

North
America

Algic Caddoan Chimakuan Chinookan Chumashan Comecrudan Coosan Eskaleut Iroquoian Kalapuyan Maiduan Muskogean Na-Dene Palaihnihan Plateau Penutian Pomoan Salishan Shastan Siouan Tanoan Tsimshianic Utian Uto-Aztecan Wakashan Wintuan Yuki–Wappo Yuman–Cochimí
Isolates	Alsea Atakapa Cayuse Chimariko Chitimacha Coahuilteco Cotoname Esselen Haida Karuk Kutenai Natchez Salinan Seri Siuslaw Takelma Timucua Tonkawa Tunica Waikuri Washo Yana Yuchi Zuni Keres? Yokuts?

Mesoamerica

Arawakan Chibchan Jicaquean Lencan Mayan Misumalpan Mixe–Zoque Oto-Manguean Tequistlatecan Totonacan Uto-Aztecan Xincan
Isolates	Cuitlatec Huave Purépecha

South
America

Isolates

Sign
languages

Arab Australian Aboriginal BANZSL Chinese Francosign Germanosign Hand Talk Indo-Pakistani Japanese Mayan Original Thai Swedish Paraguay–Uruguay? Providencia–Cayman? Sudanese? Tanzanian? Vietnamese?
Isolates	Seelist of sign languages Village sign languages