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Chiangism (Chinese:蔣介石主義;Wade–Giles:Chiang3 Chieh4-shih2 chu3i4), also known as thePolitical Philosophy of Chiang Kai-shek (Chinese:蔣介石的學說;Wade–Giles:Chiang3 Chieh4-shih2 ti4 hsüeh2shuo1), orChiang Kai-shek Thought, is the political philosophy ofPresidentGeneralissimoChiang Kai-shek, who used it during his rule in China under theKuomintang on both the mainland and Taiwan. It is aright-wing[a]authoritariannationalist ideology based on mostlyTridemist principles mixed withConfucianism.[3] It was primarily practiced as part of theNew Life Movement, as well as theChinese Cultural Renaissance movement. It wasinfluenced by other political ideologies, includingsocialism,fascism,Georgism andpaternalistic conservatism. Chiang'sMethodistChristian beliefs also played a role in shaping his ideology.
Chiangism opposedfeudalism,communism, andimperialism while promoting ideals of a unifiedChinese national identity. It was initially influenced by socialism but became increasingly aligned withauthoritarian capitalism after 1955. The extent of fascist influence on Chiang is debated among scholars. Chiangism was largely diminished in mainland China by theCampaign to Suppress Counterrevolutionaries of the communists and began to wane at the start of democratization in Taiwan.[4]
Thesocialist ideology of the Kuomintang was one of the ideologies which greatly influenced this philosophy. In the West, Chiang Kai-shek was hailed as one of the world's greatest socialist leaders. His portraits were carried along with portraits ofKarl Marx,Vladimir Lenin,Joseph Stalin, and other socialist and communist leaders. Despite earlier alliance, Chiang Kai-shek would soon be an enemy of the CCP in theChinese Civil War following theShanghai Massacre as he turned into a staunchanti-communist. Eventually, Chiang would lose the civil war to the CCP under the leadership ofMao Zedong, and the ideology ofMaoism prevailed in mainland China.
Unlike Sun's originalTridemist ideology that was heavily influenced by Western enlightenment theorists such asHenry George,Abraham Lincoln,Russell, andMill,[5] the traditional Chinese Confucian influence on Chiang's ideology is much stronger. Chiang rejected the Western progressive ideologies ofindividualism,liberalism, and the cultural aspects ofMarxism. Therefore, Chiangism is generally more culturally and socially conservative than Sun Yat-sen ideologically.
The Kuomintang government under Chiang Kai-shek denounced feudalism as counterrevolutionary and proclaimed itself to berevolutionary. He accused other Chinese warlords of being feudalists. Despite being a conservative ideology, Chiangism supported modernization policies such as women's rights, scientific advancement, and universal education.
The Kuomintang and theNationalist Government supported women's suffrage and education and the abolition of polygamy and foot binding. Under Chiang's leadership, the Republic of China government also enacted a women's quota in the parliament with reserved seats for women. During theNanjing Decade, average Chinese citizens received the education they'd never had the chance to get in the dynasties that increased the literacy rate across China. The education also promotes the ideals of Tridemism of democracy, republicanism, science, constitutionalism, and Chinese Nationalism based on thePolitical Tutelage of theKuomintang.[6][7][8][9][10]
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Afterlosing the Chinese mainland to the CCP andretreating to Taiwan, the KMT under Chiang's leadership established agencies such as theBureau of Investigation and Statistics, thePolitical Warfare Bureau, and theTaiwan Garrison Command to provide surveillance on the population and suppress dissidents, including suspected communists, during theWhite Terror.[11][12] Constitutional rights of freedom of speech, assembly, religious expression, and legal guarantees of fair trials weresuspended under martial law.[12]
Chiang Kai-shek, the head of the Kuomintang, warned theSoviet Union and other foreign countries about interfering in Chinese affairs. He was personally angry at the way China was treated by foreigners, mainly by the Soviet Union, theUnited Kingdom, and the United States.[13] Chiang'sNew Life Movement campaigned for the end of Soviet, Western, American, and other foreign influences in China.Chen Lifu, aCC Clique member of the KMT, said, "Communism originated from Soviet imperialism, which has encroached on our country." It was also noted that "the white bear of the North Pole is known for its viciousness and cruelty."[14]
Chiang was also staunchly against imperialism and colonialism, as he opposedFDR's offer of China's seizure ofIndochina and argued that China had no intent to replace Western imperialism with its own. He also viewed foreign powers, including theUSA, the USSR, and theEmpire of Japan as imperialist powers that wanted to exploit China.[15][16][17]
Chiang promoted strong Chinese nationalism throughout the territories controlled by the ROC as well as the Tridemist ideal of a unified "Dang Guo" (Party-state), to solidify its rule and ideological supremacy.[18]Mandarin Chinese became the sole official language, and standard education curriculums emphasized Chinese history with Confucianism culture.[19][20]
As an opponent ofJapanese imperialism, Chiang was a supporter of theKorean independence movement. Under the Nationalist government, theProvisional Government of the Republic of Korea received political asylum and support, and the secret militant branchBlue Shirts Society (BSS) supported left-wing nationalistKim Won-bong and Kim-ledKorean National Revolutionary Party.[21][22][23]
To promote the cultural legitimacy of his regime in contrast to the PRC led by the Communists, which was engaging in theGreat Proletarian Cultural Revolution, Chiang launched theChinese Cultural Renaissance in Taiwan to promote Chinese culture and traditional values.[24]
Chiang, a committedTridemist, supported attempts at land reform in-lieu ofGeorgist principles. In a 1924 interview with theNew York American, reprinted inLand and Freedom, Chiang states:
We have neither capitalists nor great land owners. We have no problems that bother great industrial nations. We have only a land problem but no great landlords. We mean to adopt as a policy the rule that the government shall either tax or buy all lands according to values fixed by their owners. When the landlord has fixed the value and the Government has recorded it, the value of land the government does not buy increases. The increased value shall go to the government.[25]
The Kuomintang was a Chinese nationalist revolutionary party that had been supported by the Soviet Union. It was organized onLeninism.[13] Contrary to the view that he was pro-capitalist, Chiang Kai-shek behaved in an antagonistic manner to the capitalists in China, often attacking them and confiscating their capital and assets for the use of the government.
Chiang cracked down on pro-communist unions and peasant organizations, and the wealthy Shanghai capitalists at the same time. Chiang Kai-shek continued Sun's anti-capitalist ideology. TheRepublic of China's media openly attacked the capitalists and capitalism, supporting a government-controlled economy instead of privately owned ones.
Historian Jay Taylor has noted that Chiang's hybridrevolutionary nationalism ideology is inspired by both theFrench republican movement and Confucianism. He described Chiang as a "left-leaning Confucian-Jacobinist".[26]
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TheBlue Shirts Society, also known under a variety of other names, has been described as one of the most relevant fascistic orultranationalist groups in China at the time. It began as a secret society in the KMT military before being reformed within the party.[27] By the 1930s, it had influence uponChina's economy andsociety.[28][29] Historian Jeffrey Crean notes, however, that the Blue Shirts impacted only elite politics, not the vast majority of China's population.[30]: 64–65 The Blue Shirts held contempt forliberal democracy and stressed the political usefulness of violence.[30]: 64 They were influenced by KMT contact with Nazi advisors and inspired by the GermanBrownshirts and the ItalianBlackshirts. Unlike those organizations, however, the Blue Shirts were composed of political elites, not the popular masses.[30]: 64 The later New Life Movement drew inspirations from the society, although some historians are reluctant to define them as fascist.[27]
CloseSino-German ties also promoted cooperation betweenNazi Germany and theNationalist government.[31] The Kuomintang sought to build a one-party ideological state in China, calledDang Guo, to solidify its rule and ideological supremacy.[32]
Chiang Kai-shek started theNew Life Movement under Confucian ideals. It was a government-led civic campaign in the 1930sRepublic of China to promote cultural reform andNeo-Confucian social morality and to ultimately unite China under a centralized ideology following the emergence of ideological challenges to the status quo. The movement itself was modeled on Confucianism, mixed withChristianity,nationalism, andauthoritarianism that have some similarities to fascism,[33] and thus, it rejected individualism and liberalism. TheKuomintang launched the initiative on 19 February 1934 as part of ananti-communist campaign and soon enlarged the campaign to target all of China. Some historians regard this movement as imitatingNazism and regard this movement as being a neo-nationalistic movement used to elevate Chiang's control of everyday lives.Frederic Wakeman suggested that the New Life Movement was "Confucian fascism".[34] In a 1935 speech, Chiang stated that "fascism is what China now most needs" and described fascism as the stimulant for a declining society.[30]: 64 Mao once derogatorily compared Chiang toAdolf Hitler, referring to him as the "Führer of China".[35]
Jay Taylor argues that Chiang's ideology does not espouse the general ideology of fascism despite his growing sympathies with fascist ideas in the 1930s.[36] Chiang repeatedly attacked his enemies such as theEmpire of Japan as fascistic and ultra-militaristic; he also declared his opposition to the fascist ideology in the 1940s.[37][38] The Sino-German relationship also rapidly deteriorated as Germany failed to pursue a détente between China and Japan, which led to the outbreak of theSecond Sino-Japanese War. China later declared war onfascist countries, including Germany, Italy, and Japan, as part of theDeclarations of war during World War II and Chiang became the most powerful "anti-fascist" leader in Asia.[39][40] Despite the influences of fascism on the Kuomintang’s ideology, when it comes to categorizing fascist regimes, KMT and Chiang's regime is often not categorized as fascist.[36][41][42]
After the government of the Republic of China moved to Taiwan, Chiang Kai-shek's economic policy turned towards to economic liberalism. He usedSho-Chieh Tsiang and other liberal economists to promoteeconomic liberalization reforms in Taiwan.[43]
However, Jay Taylor has noted that the developmental model of Chiangism in Taiwan still had elements of socialism, and the Gini index of Taiwan was around 0.28 by the 1970s, lower than the relatively equalWest Germany. ROC (Taiwan) was one of the most equal countries in the pro-western bloc. The lower 40% income group doubled their income share to 22% of total income, with the upper 20% shrinking from 61% to 39%, compared to Japanese rule.[36] The Chiangist economic model can be seen as a form ofdirigisme orbureaucratic capitalism,[44][45] with thestate playing a crucial role in directing themarket economy. Unlike most other major capitalist countries, small businesses and state-owned enterprises flourished under this economic model in Taiwan, but it didn't see the emergence of corporate monopolies.
After the democratization of Taiwan, it began to slowly drift away from the Chiangist economic policy to embrace a morefree market system as part of theeconomic globalization process under the context ofneoliberalism.[46]
The impact of Chiangism as an ideology can still be felt across both mainland China and Taiwan. HistorianRana Mitter argued that the People's Republic of China today is closer to Chiang's vision than to Mao's and wrote, "One can imagine Chiang Kai-shek's ghost wandering round China today nodding in approval, while Mao's ghost follows behind him, moaning at the destruction of his vision".[47]
Various political parties across thePan-Blue coalition continue to uphold theThree Principles of the People, as well as Chiang and his legacy. Some fringe groups, including theNational Socialism Association, aneo-Nazi Chinese ultranationalist group, publicly championed the rhetoric and philosophies of Chiangism.[48]
국민정부 조직부를 통한 임시정부 지원 ... 중국국민당의 준군사 조직이였던 삼민주의역행사의 황푸군관학교 출신 김원봉에 대한 지원이었다.[(Chiang Kai-shek) supported the Provisional Government (of the Republic of Korea) through the Nationalist Government Organization ... The Society of Practice of the Three Principles of the People, a paramilitary organization of the Kuomintang, supported Kim Won-bong, a former Huangpu military school.]
김구 중심의 우파 민족주의 세력과 김원봉 중심의좌파 민족주의 세력[right-wing nationalist forces centered on Kim Gu andleft-wing nationalist forces centered on Kim Won-bong]
민족혁명당은 중국국민 당정부와 긴밀한 관계를 이루면서 활동했다. 이 당은 장개석(蔣介石：장제스)이 이끄는 남의사(藍衣社 ; 중국국민당의 비밀특무기관)와 정보를 교환하고 재정과 무기의 원조를 받았다.[The (Korean) National Revolutionary Party had close ties with the KMT government. The party exchanged information with Chiang Kai-shek's Blue Shirts Society and received financial and weapons aid.]
According to Jay Taylor, Chiang Kai-shek was a "left-leaning Confucian-Jacobinist" and a revolutionary nationalist.
Chiang Kai-shek, as the commander of the Chinese front and leader of the anti-fascist fight in the Orient
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