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Chhetri

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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Ethnic group in Nepal and India
"Kshetriya" redirects here. For military and ruling class in Hinduism, seeKshatriya.

Ethnic group
Chhetri/Kshetri/Khasiya
क्षेत्री/खश/खश्या
Portrait ofQueen Tripurasundari of Nepal, a Chhetri who ruled the country as a queen regent from 1806 to 1832
Regions with significant populations
  Nepal4,796,995 (16.4% of Nepal's population) (2021)[1]
Languages
Nepali (Khas-Kura/Gorkhali),Jumli,Bajhangi,Dotyali (Doteli)[2]
Religion
Hinduism 99.25% (2011),Christianity 0.6% (2011)[3]
Related ethnic groups
Khas peoples
Khatri,Thakuri,Kumaoni,Magar, and otherIndo-Aryan peoples

Chhetri (Kshetri,Kshettri,Kshetry orChhettri), (Nepali:क्षेत्रीpronounced[tsʰetri];IAST:Kṣetrī) historically calledKshettriya orKshetriya orKhas areNepali speaking people historically associated with the warrior class and administration, some of whom trace their origin to migration frommedieval India.[4][5] Chhetri was acaste of administrators, governors,warriors and military elites in the medievalKhas Kingdom andGorkha Kingdom (later unifiedKingdom of Nepal).[6] The nobility of the Gorkha Kingdom mainly originated from Chhetri families. They also had a strong presence in civil administration affairs.[7] The bulk ofprime ministers of Nepal before thedemocratization of Nepal belonged to this caste as a result of the old Gorkhali aristocracy. Gorkha-based aristocratic Chhetri families included thePande dynasty, theBasnyat dynasty, theKunwar family (and their offspring branch, the autocraticRana dynasty) and theThapa dynasty. From 1806 to 1951, Chhetri prime ministers wielded absolute rule in the country and the monarchy was reduced to a powerless figurehead.[8]

Khas Chhetris were traditionally considered a division of the Khas people withKhas Brahmin (commonly called Khas Bahun).[9] They make up 16.45% of Nepal's population according to the2021 Nepal census, making them the most populous caste orethnic community in Nepal.[10] Chhetris speak anIndo-AryanNepali language (Khas-Kura) as mother tongue.[2][4]

Etymology and background

Chhetri is considered a direct derivative of the Sanskrit wordKshatriya from the rootkṣatra meaning "rule or authority" which was associated with the ruling and warrior class ofHindu society.[11][12][13] According to the1854 Legal Code (Muluki Ain) of Nepal, Chhetris were a social group among thesacred thread bearers (Tagadhari) andtwice-born people of theHindu tradition.[14][15] Almost all Chhetris are Hindu.[16]

The term 'Chhetri' was adopted by a lot of the high-rankingKhas after theunification of Nepal,[17] and it was formalized by an order ofBir Narsingh Kunwar(Jang Bahadur Rana), who considered their original name (Khasa) to be derogatory.

The family occupation of Chhetris

Bhimsen Thapa, Prime Minister and de-facto autocratic ruler of Nepal from 1806 to 1837

The caste system of Nepal was decided according to the occupation they did from the ancestors of their family, known asDharma (Devanagari: धर्म). The family occupation of Brahmin wasguru or the spiritual leader inHinduism whereas that of Chhetri wasmilitary andpolitical leaders. Hence, the majority of military and political positions have been historically occupied by Chhetris until now.[note 1]

History

Jang Bahadur Rana, Premier and de-facto autocratic ruler of Nepal; also a patriarch of historicalRana dynasty (1846-1951)
Portrait of Prime MinisterKalu Pande wearingKhukuri, aPande Chhetri aristocrat;Kaji (Prime Minister and Army Chief) ofGorkha Kingdom.

They are thought to be connected to theKhasas mentioned in the ancient Indian literature and the medievalKhasa kingdom.[18] In the early modern history of Nepal, Chhetris played a key role in theUnification of Nepal, providing the core of theGorkhali army of the mid-18th century.[19]Bir Bhadra Thapa was aThapa of Chhetri group[20] and leading Bharadar duringUnification of Nepal.[21] His grandsonBhimsen Thapa becameMukhtiyar (Prime Minister) of Nepal.[21]Swarup Singh Karki, a leading politician and military officer, belonged to Chhetri family.[22]Abhiman Singh Basnyat ofBasnyat dynasty,Damodar Pande ofPande dynasty were both members of Chhetri caste,[23] andJung Bahadur Rana, founder ofRana dynasty also belonged to the Chhetri community.[24]

For 104 years since the middle of the 19th century until 1951, hereditary Rana prime ministers wielded absolute rule in the country relegating the monarchy to a mere figurehead.[8]During the monarchy, Chhetris continued to dominate the ranks of theNepalese government,Nepalese Army,Nepalese Police and administration.[19]

Chhetri noble families

Prime MinisterAbhiman Singh Basnyat, aBasnyat KshetriMulkaji

Most of the political leadership of theGorkha Kingdom (and later,Kingdom of Nepal) hailed from Chhetri families; primarily from the families ofBasnyats,Baniyas,Kunwars,Khatris,Pandes, andThapas who formed the nobility known asKazis andSardars.[25] The political and administrative dominance of Chhetris in the kingdom of Nepal continued with the dynastic rule of theRana Prime Ministers (1846–1953), thePande family, theThapa family, and theBasnyat family,[7] all of whom held the most prominent positions in the country and overwhelmingly monopolized the Chhetri presence in theGovernment of Nepal, its military and police. In traditional and administrative professions, Chhetris were given favorable treatment by theroyal government.[26][27]

Chhetri and premiership

The nobility ofGorkha were mainly from Chhetri families and they had strong presence in civil administration affairs.[7] All of thePrime Minister of Nepal between 1768 and 1950 were Chhetris with the exception ofRanga Nath Poudyal, being aBahun, andFateh Jung Shah, being aThakuri.[28] These number varied after thedemocratization of Nepal. Between 1951 and 1997, out of the 16 Prime Ministers of Nepal, 5 of them were Chhetris.[29]

Late QueenIndra Rajya Lakshmi Devi of Nepal, mother ofKing Birendra andKing Gyanendra, was fromRana Chhetri dynasty
Chhetri Premiers of Nepal
S.N.NameTook officeLeft officeNotes
1Vamsharaj Pande17761779again from 1782-1785
2Swarup Singh Karki17761777
3Abhiman Singh Basnyat17851794
4Kirtiman Singh Basnyat17941801
5Bakhtawar Singh Basnyat18011803
6Damodar Pande18031803
7Bhimsen Thapa18061837
8Rana Jang Pande18371837again from 1839-1840
9Mathabar Singh Thapa18431845
10Jung Bahadur Rana18461856again from 1857-1877
11Bam Bahadur Kunwar18561857
12Krishna Bahadur Kunwar Rana18571857
13Ranodip Singh Kunwar18771885
14Bir Shumsher Jung Bahadur Rana18851901
15Dev Shumsher Jung Bahadur Rana19011901
16Chandra Shumsher Jung Bahadur Rana19011929
17Bhim Shumsher Jung Bahadur Rana19291932
18Juddha Shumsher Jung Bahadur Rana19321945
19Padma Shumsher Jung Bahadur Rana19451948
20Mohan Shumsher Jung Bahadur Rana19481951
21Surya Bahadur Thapa19551955again from 1963-1964;

1965-1969, 1979-1983, 1997-1998, 2003-2004

22Subarna Shamsher Rana19581959
23Kirti Nidhi Bista19691970again from 1971-1973;

1977-1979

24Sher Bahadur Deuba19951997again from 2001-2002;

2004-2005, 2017-2018, 2021-2022

25Sushila Karki2025First female Prime Minister of Nepal

Military achievements

Portrait of KingPrithivi Narayan Shah, founder of modern Nepal, consulting with army chiefShivaram Singh Basnyat
Bir Shamsher JBR, aRana KshetriMaharaja and Prime Minister

Chhetri had dominated high military positions and monopolized the military force at the times of Chhetri autocratic administrators like PMBhimsen Thapa and PMJung Bahadur Rana. There were 12Basnyats, 16Pandes, 6Thapas and 3Kunwar officers totalling to 51 Chhetri officers in the year 1841  A.D.[24] The most prominent officers atShah administration were theKazis which had control over civil and military functions like a Minister and Military officer combined.Rana Jang Pande, the leader of Pande faction, was thePrime Minister of Nepal in 1841  A.D.[30] which might have caused an increase in the number of Pande officers at 1841. After the riseRana dynasty (Kunwars), the number changed to 10Basnyats, 1Pandes, 3Thapas and 26Kunwar officers totaling to 61 Chhetri officers in the year 1854  A.D.[24]Chhetris dominated the position of the senior officers of the Nepali Army comprising 74.4% of total senior officers in 1967. Similarly, Chhetris composed 38.1%, 54.3% and 55.3% of the senior officers in the year 2003, 2004 and 2007 respectively.[31]

LateQueen Aishwarya of Nepal; aRana Chhetri
Bidya Devi Bhandari, first woman President of Nepal &Commander-in-Chief was born in a Pandey Chhetri family
Sushila Karki, first female Prime Minister of Nepal
Former Head ofNepalese Army,Rajendra Chhetri (KC)
Chhetri Heads of Nepalese Army (18th to 21st century)
S.N.NameOffice
1Shivaram Singh Basnyat1743–1747
2Vamshidhar "Kalu" Pande1747–1757
3Vamsharaj Pande????–1785
4Abhiman Singh Basnyat????–1794
5Damodar Pande????–1804
6Bhimsen Thapa1811–1837
7Rana Jang Pande1837–1837
8Mathabar Singh Thapa1843–1845
9Jung Bahadur Rana1846–1856
10Bam Bahadur Kunwar1856–1857
11Krishna Bahadur Kunwar Rana1857–1862
12Ranodip Singh Kunwar1862–1877
13Jagat Shumsher Rana1877–1879
14Dhir Shumsher Kunwar Rana1879–1884
15Jit Jung Rana1884–1885
16Khadga Shumsher Jung Bahadur Rana1885–1887
17Rana Shumsher Jung Bahadur Rana1887–1887
18Dev Shumsher Jung Bahadur Rana1887–1901
19Chandra Shumsher Jung Bahadur Rana1901–1901
20Bhim Shumsher Jung Bahadur Rana1901–1929
21Juddha Shumsher Jung Bahadur Rana1929–1932
22Rudra Shumsher Jung Bahadur Rana1932–1934
23Padma Shumsher Jung Bahadur Rana1934–1945
24Mohan Shumsher Jung Bahadur Rana1945–1948
25Baber Shumsher Jung Bahadur Rana1948–1951
26Kaiser Shumsher Jung Bahadur Rana1951–1953
27Kiran Shumsher Jung Bahadur Rana1953–1956
28Toran Shumsher Jung Bahadur Rana1956–1960
29Nir Shumsher Jung Bahadur Rana1960–1965
30Singha Bahadur Basnyat1970–1975
31Guna Shumsher Jung Bahadur Rana1975–1979
32Arjun Narsingh Rana1983–1987
33Satchit Jung Bahadur Rana1987–1991
34Gadul Shamsher Jang Bahadur Rana1991–1995
35Dharmapaal Barsingh Thapa1995–1999
36Prajwalla Shamsher Jang Bahadur Rana1999–2003
37Pyar Jung Thapa2003–2006
38Rookmangad Katawal2006–2009
39Gaurav Shamsher Jang Bahadur Rana2012–2015
40Rajendra Chhetri2015–2018
41Purna Chandra Thapa2018–2021
42Ashok Raj Sigdel Chhetri2024–

Sino-Nepalese, Anglo-Nepalese and Nepal-Tibet wars

Chhetri commanders and generals of the military campaigns of the kingdom of Nepal have shaped the political course of the country overwhelmingly. Among the most prominent battles, the wars fought between Nepal and the empires of Tibet, China and the United Kingdom have highlighted the military strength of the kingdom of Nepal at a time of regional disintegration in South Asia. In 1788, Nepal invaded Tibet and as a consequence, a war was fought betweenQing dynasty of China and theKingdom of Nepal from 1788 to 1792, known as theSino-Nepalese War. The battle, which was commanded by commandersDamodar Pande,Abhiman Singh Basnyat, andKirtiman Singh Basnyat resulted in a treaty with Tibet accepting terms dictated by Nepal; as a outcome of which Tibet would pay tribute to Nepal and Nepalese citizens would have the right to visit, trade, and establish industries in any part of Tibet and China.[32][33]

Jit Gadhi fort, site of Nepal's victory against the British army; led by ChhetriColonel Ujir Singh Thapa during Anglo-Nepalese war[34]

After about two and half decades of the Sino-Nepalese war, with the expansion of the British Empire in India,Anglo-Nepalese War was fought between the British forces and the army ofKingdom of Nepal. The war was commanded byBhimsen Thapa,Amar Singh Thapa,Ujir Singh Thapa,Ranabir Singh Thapa,Dalbhanjan Pande,Bakhtawar Singh Thapa andRanajor Singh Thapa from 1814 to 1816 and led to a peace treaty with the British and maintained the independence of Nepal during theBritish Company rule andBritish Raj in South Asia from 18th to 20th century.[35]

With the ascent ofRana dynasty, another war broke out between Nepal and Tibet (Nepal–Tibet War of 1855–1856) whenJung Bahadur Rana declared war over Tibet.[36] The battle was commanded byBam Bahadur Kunwar, Sanak Singh Khatri, Prithvi Dhoj Kunwar,Dhir Sumsher and Krishna Dhoj Kunwar and resulted in the victory of Nepalese troops whereby the Tibetans had to pay an annual subsidy of ten thousand rupees to Nepal and were made to allow the establishment of a Nepalese trading station and agency in Lhasa.[37]

Religion

Due to large number of Chhetri commanders,Goddess Bhadrakali became the patron deity of Nepal's army. The war cry "Jay Mahakali, Ayo Gurkhali" meaning "Hail Great Goddess Kali, here come the Gurkhas!" invokedGoddess Kali during wars

Almost all the Chhetris areHindus, and form the largest Hindu adhering sub-group of Nepal representing 99.3% of their population, and those who are Hindus may also follow Buddhism;the Buddha being worshipped as the ninthavatar of godVishnu.[38] Chhetris have historically practiced Hindupolytheism which included the worship ofKhas Masto sect ofShaivism, clan deity (Kuldevta), their personal favorite deity (Ishta-devata), fierce forms ofShiva (such asVirabhadra andRudra) and goddesses such asAdi Shakti,Kali andBhadrakali.

Owing to the extensively large number of Chhetri generals and commander-in-chiefs in theNepalese Army (formerly known as Gorkha Army), goddessBhadrakali, an auspicious form ofKali, was the patron deity of the army and her worship was necessary before and during wars.[39] The war cry, "Jay Mahakali, Ayo Gurkhali" meaning "Hail Great Goddess Kali, here come the Gurkhas!", invoked the sense of protection fromGoddess Kali during battles and today is the war slogan of theNepalese Army as well asGurkha regiment of theIndian Army and theBritish Army.[40]

Families and surnames

Lal Durbar (Red Palace), associated with Rana Chhetris ofKathmandu

Surnames of Chhetris include, among others:[41]

Demographics

Women from Chhetri community during religious festival
Kiran Chetry, formerCNN anchor, is of Chhetri descent

TheCentral Bureau of Statistics of Nepal classifies Chhetris as a subgroup within the broader social group of Khas Arya (together withThakuri and Sanyasi/Dasnami).[42] The 2021 census recorded Chhetri population of Nepal as the largest community with a population of 4,796,995 (16.4% of Nepal). Previously, the 2011 Nepal census showed Chhetris as the largestHindu adherents in the nation with 4,365,113 people which was 99.3% of total Chhetri population.[43] In Nepal's hill districts the Chhetri population rises to 41% compared to 31%Brahmin and 27% other castes. This greatly exceeds the Kshatriya portion in most regions with predominantly Hindu populations.[44][45]

As per 2021 census, Chhetris are largest caste group in 27districts of Nepal, increase from 21 districts of2001 Nepal census and 24 districts of2011 Nepal census.[46] These twenty seven districts are -Sankhuwasabha district,Okhaldhunga district,Dhankuta district,Morang district,Udayapur district,Dolakha district,Ramechhap district,Gulmi district,Dang district,Salyan district,Western Rukum district,Surkhet district,Dailekh district,Jajarkot district,Dolpa district,Jumla district,Mugu district,Humla district,Bajura district,Bajhang district,Achham district,Doti district,Dadeldhura district,Baitadi district,Darchula district,Kalikot district, andKanchanpur district.

The district with the largest Chhetri population isKathmandu district with 424,172 (i.e. 20.7% of the total district population).[43][46] Chhetris form the second largest demographic group afterNewars in theKathmandu Valley, together withLalitpur (Patan) andBhaktapur, with a population of 621,346. Other districts with more than 150,000 Chhetri population areKailali,Kanchanpur,Dang,Jhapa andMorang.[46]

Province wise, Chhetris are majority demography inKoshi Province,Karnali Province andSudurpashchim Province.[46] The frequency of Chhetris by province is shown in the table:[47]

Demographics of Chhetris in the Provinces of Nepal
ProvincePercentage of Provincial populationDemographic Status
Karnali Province42.2%largest
Sudurpashchim Province41.7%largest
Bagmati Province17.4%3rd largest
Koshi Province15%largest
Lumbini Province14.2%3rd largest
Gandaki Province13.1%3rd largest
Madhesh Province2.0%minority

As per thePublic Service Commission of Nepal,Brahmins (33.3%) and Chhetris (20.01%) were the two largest caste groups to obtain governmental jobs in the fiscal year 2017–18, even though 45% governmental seats are reserved for women,Madhesis,lower caste and tribes, and other marginalized groups.[48]

Indian actressGeetanjali Thapa, recipient ofNational Film Award for Best Actress (2013)
Sunil Chhetri, former Captain of Indian Football National Team

The frequency of Chhetris was higher than national average (16.4%) in the following districts:[47]

Present day

Chhetri together withBahun andThakuri fall underKhas Arya, who are deniedquota and reservations in civil services and other sectors due to their history of socio-political dominance in Nepal.[49] There are no quotas for theKhas community who fall underBahun-Chhetri-thakuri hierarchy.[50] As per the explanation of legal provisions ofConstitution of Nepal, Khas Arya comprises the Brahmin, Kshetri, Thakur and Sanyasi (Dashnami) communities.[51] But they are allowed reservation in federal parliament and provincial legislature.[52] TheEuropean Union has been accused of direct interference, creating ethnic strife and negative discrimination towardsKhas Arya due to their recommendation to remove the reservation for Khas Aryas.[53][52]

Notable people

Queen Mothers of Nepal

Film industry/Fashion/Arts

Politics and administration (non-historical)

Sports

Chief Justices (Supreme Court of Nepal)

Academia, social work and philanthropy

Law and order (Head of Nepal Police)

Royalties of Chhetri descent

Other notable people

See also

References

Footnotes

  1. ^The Gorkha soldiers are usually from Gurung community in Gorkha district of Nepal.

Citations

  1. ^National Population and Housing Census 2021, Caste/Ethnicity Report (Report). National Statistics Office, Government of Nepal. 2021.
  2. ^abDhungel 1998, p. 5.
  3. ^Population monograph of Nepal(PDF) (Report). Vol. II. Central Bureau of Statistics, Government of Nepal. 2014.
  4. ^abLawoti 2005, p. 91.
  5. ^Bista, Dor Bahadur (1980).People of Nepal (4 ed.). Ratna Pustak Bhandar. pp. 2–4.
  6. ^Pradhan 2012, pp. 20–21.
  7. ^abcdefgPahari 1995, p. 632.
  8. ^ab"History Of Nepal - Ministry of Foreign Affairs Nepal MOFA".mofa.gov.np. Retrieved2024-09-14.
  9. ^Hitchcock 1978, pp. 116–119.
  10. ^National Statistics Office (2021).National Population and Housing Census 2021, Caste/Ethnicity Report.Government of Nepal (Report).
  11. ^McLeod, John (2002).The History of India. Greenwood Press.ISBN 978-0-313-31459-9.
  12. ^Burghart 1984, p. 119.
  13. ^Gurung 1996, p. 33.
  14. ^Sherchan 2001, p. 14.
  15. ^Gurung, H. (2005). Social exclusion and Maoist insurgency. Paper presented at National Dialogue Conference on ILO Convention 169 on Indigenous and Tribal Peoples, Kathmandu, 19–20 January 2005.
  16. ^Dhungel 1998, p. 8.
  17. ^Bista, Dor Bahadur (1991).Fatalism and Development - Nepal's Struggle of Modernization. Calcutta: Orient Longman. p. 38.ISBN 8125001883.
  18. ^Kumar Pradhan (1984).A History of Nepali Literature. Sahitya Akademi. p. 5.
  19. ^abGurung 1996, pp. 1–33,passim.
  20. ^abcdRegmi 1995, p. 44.
  21. ^abPradhan 2012, p. 22.
  22. ^abSingh 1997, p. 142.
  23. ^abcRegmi 1975, p. 73.
  24. ^abcdeAdhikari 2015, p. 120.
  25. ^Kings and Political Leaders of the Gorkhali Empire 1768-1814. Regmi, M (1995). Orient Longman Limited. Available at:https://pahar.in/pahar/Books%20and%20Articles/Nepal/1995%20Kings%20and%20Political%20Leaders%20of%20the%20Gorkhali%20Empire%201768-1814%20by%20Regmi%20s.pdf
  26. ^Burbank, Jon (2002).Nepal. Cultures of the World (2 ed.). Marshall Cavendish.ISBN 0-7614-1476-2.
  27. ^Bajracharya, Bhadra Ratha; Sharma, Shri Ram; Bakshi, Shiri Ram (1993).Cultural History of Nepal. Anmol Publications. pp. 286–8.ISBN 81-7041-840-2.
  28. ^Raj 1996, p. 5.
  29. ^Gurung 1998, p. 129.
  30. ^Joshi & Rose 1966, p. 27.
  31. ^Adhikari 2015, p. 123.
  32. ^The National Review. W.H. Allen. 1884.
  33. ^Killigrew, John W. (1979)."Some Aspects of the Sino-Nepalese War of 1792".Journal of Asian History.13 (1):42–63.ISSN 0021-910X.JSTOR 41930319.
  34. ^"Victory over British Army: Jit Gadhi festival being celebrated today in Butwal".myrepublica.nagariknetwork.com. 2024-08-08. Retrieved2024-11-25.
  35. ^"Anglo-Nepalese War | British-Asian history | Britannica".www.britannica.com. Retrieved2024-10-09.
  36. ^"Nepalese Army | नेपाली सेना".nepalarmy.mil.np. Archived fromthe original on 2016-12-20. Retrieved2025-07-06.
  37. ^"Third Nepal-Tibet War 1855 AD".www.globalsecurity.org. Retrieved2024-10-09.
  38. ^"Chhetri – National Museum". Retrieved2024-11-26.
  39. ^Sangal, Naresh Chandra (1998).Glimpses of Nepal: A Brief Compilation of History, Culture, Language, Tradition, Religious Places, Festivals, Mountains, Revers, Safari Parks, Cities, Kathmandu University, and Other Important Informations for Holiday-makers. APH Publishing.ISBN 978-81-7024-962-7.
  40. ^"THE KHUKRI BRAVES The Illustrated History of The Gorkha | Rupa Publications". Retrieved2024-11-26.
  41. ^Subba, Tanka Bahadur (1989).Dynamics of a hill society: Nepalis in Darjeeling and Sikkim Himalayas. Mittal Publications.ISBN 9788173041143.Some of the Chhetri clans are Adhikari, Baniya, Basnet, Bist, Bohra, Bura or Burathoki, Gharti, Karki, Khadka, Khatri, Khulal, Mahat, Raut, Rana, Roka, Thapa, etc.
  42. ^Population Monograph of Nepal, Volume II
  43. ^ab"Nepal Census 2011"(PDF). Archived fromthe original(PDF) on 2017-09-18. Retrieved2017-04-09.
  44. ^Dahal, Dilli Ram (2002-12-30)."Chapter 3. Social composition of the Population: Caste/Ethnicity and Religion in Nepal"(PDF).Government of Nepal, Central Bureau of Statistics. Archived fromthe original(PDF) on 2011-05-19. Retrieved2011-04-02.
  45. ^"Nepal in Figures 2008"(PDF).Government of Nepal, Central Bureau of Statistics. 2008. Archived fromthe original(PDF) on 2011-07-23. Retrieved2011-04-03.
  46. ^abcdNational Census of Nepal 2021. Government of Nepal, National Statistics Office. (Report: available athttps://censusnepal.cbs.gov.np/results/files/result-folder/Caste%20Ethnicity_report_NPHC_2021.pdf )
  47. ^ab"cast-ethnicity | national_population and housing_census_year results".censusnepal.cbs.gov.np. Retrieved2024-08-27.
  48. ^"Brahmins and Chhetris land most government jobs".
  49. ^"Khas Arya quota provision in civil services opposed".thehimalayantimes.com. 10 November 2017. Retrieved1 May 2018.
  50. ^Aryal, Trailokya Raj (24 May 2017)."The Bahun narrative".Myrepublica.
  51. ^"Nepal-India Relations: Need for Urgent Paradigm Shift - Mainstream Weekly".www.mainstreamweekly.net. Retrieved8 June 2018.
  52. ^ab"Next Door Nepal: The nationalist's hour".indianexpress.com. 26 March 2018. Retrieved8 June 2018.
  53. ^Rai, Om Astha (23 March 2018)."Hail to the chiefs".www.nepalitimes.com. Retrieved8 June 2018.
  54. ^Pradhan 2012, p. 12.
  55. ^"PRATINIDHI".mahilapratinidhi.org. Retrieved2025-07-13.
  56. ^Shaha 1990, p. 201.
  57. ^Yadav, P. (2016).Social Transformation in Post-conflict Nepal: A Gender Perspective. Taylor & Francis. p. 39.ISBN 9781317353904.
  58. ^Institute of Constitutional and Parliamentary Studies (1980),Journal of Constitutional and Parliamentary Studies, vol. 14, Institute of Constitutional and Parliamentary Studies
  59. ^Choudhuri, Poynder & Stevens 1984, p. 147.

Sources

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