Chera dynasty | |
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| c. 3rd century BCE–c. 5th century CE | |
.jpg) Approximate extent of Chera influence in early historic south India (Gurukkal, 2002) | |
| Capital | |
| Official languages | |
| Religion | |
| Government | Monarchy |
| History | |
• Established | c. 3rd century BCE |
• Disestablished | c. 5th century CE |
| Today part of | |
| Chera dynasty |
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Early Historic Cheras
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Medieval Cheras (Karur)
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Medieval Cheras (Mahodayapuram)
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TheChera dynasty (orCēra,IPA:[t͡ʃeːɾɐ]), also known asKeralaputra,[1] from the early historicTamil-speaking southern India, or theSangam period, ruled over parts of present-day statesKerala andTamil Nadu.[2][3] The Cheras, known as one of themu-ventar (the Three Crowned Kings) ofTamilakam (the Tamil Country) alongside theChola andPandya, has been documented as early as the third century BCE.[4][5] The Chera country was geographically well-placed at the tip of the Indian peninsula to profit from maritime trade via the extensiveIndian Ocean networks. Exchange of spices, especiallyblack pepper, withMiddle Eastern orGraeco-Roman merchants, is attested in several sources.[6][7][8] Their influence extended over central Kerala and western Tamil Nadu until the end of the early historic period in southern India.[2]
The Cheras of the early historical period (c. second century BCE – c. third/fifth century CE) had their capital in interior Tamil country (Vanchi-Karur,Kongu Nadu), and ports/capitals atMuchiri-Vanchi (Muziris) andThondi (Tyndis) on the Indian Ocean coast of Kerala.[8] They also controlledPalakkad Gap and theNoyyal river valley, the principal trade route between theMalabar Coast and eastern Tamil Nadu.[9] The bow and arrow or the bow was the traditional dynastic emblem of the Chera family.[10] From a balanced historiographical perspective, the major pre-Pallava polities of southern India, ruled by the Cheras, Pandyas, and Cholas, displayed a rudimentarystate structure.[11] The early Tamil literature, known as theSangam texts, and extensiveGraeco-Roman accounts are the major sources of information about the early historic Cheras.[3] Other corroborative sources for the Cheras includeTamil-Brahmi inscriptions, one of which describes Kadunkon Ilam Kadunko, son ofPerum Kadunkon, and the grandson of Chera ruler Athan Cheral of the Irumporai clan,[12][1] silver portrait coins withTamil-Brahmi legends, and copper coins depicting the Chera symbols the bow and the arrow on the reverse.[13] After the end of the early historical period, around the third-to-fifth centuries CE, the Cheras' power significantly declined.[14]
"Kadal Pirakottiya" Chenkuttuvan, the most celebrated Chera ruler of early Tamil literature, is famous for the traditions surroundingKannaki, the principal character of the Tamil epic poemChilappathikaram.[6][15] Several medieval dynasties, such as the Keralas/Cheras ofKarur (Kongu country),Satiyaputra Cheras ofThagadur, and the Cheras ofMahodayapuram (Kerala) claimed descent from the pre-Pallava/early historic Chera rulers.[16]
TheDravidian term "Chera" or "Cheraman"/"Cheralar," along with its variousIndo-Aryan variants such as "Keralaputras," denotes both the ruling lineage or family and the people, as well as the geographical region associated with them. The title "Cheraman" is generally believed to be a shortened form of "Cheramakan", the original root of the title "Keralaputras".[1] The etymology of "Chera" is still debated among historians. In one version, the word is derived fromCheral, a corruption ofCharal meaning "declivity of a mountain" inTamil, suggesting a connection with the mountainous geography ofKerala.[17] Another theory states the word "Cheralam" is derived from "cher" (sand) and "alam" (region), meaning, "the slushy land".[17] A number of other theories appear in historical studies.[18][17]
In ancient non-Tamil sources, the Cheras are referred to by various names. The Cheras are referred asKedalaputo (Sanskrit: "Kerala Putra") in the EmperorAshoka'sPali third-century-BCE edicts.[19]Pliny the Elder andClaudius Ptolemy referred to the Cheras asKaelobotros andKerobottros respectively, and theGraeco-Roman trade mapPeriplus Maris Erythraei refers to the Cheras asKeprobotras.[15][20] These Graeco-Roman names are probably corruptions of theIndo-Aryan term "Kedala Puto/Kerala Putra".[15][20]
Arunattarmalai, Velayudhampalayam (Pugalur)
- Athan Che[ra]l Irumporai/Irumpurai
- Perum Kadungon
- Kadungon Ilam Kadungo
The earliest Graeco-Roman accounts referring to the Cheras are byPliny the Elder in the first century CE, in thePeriplus text, and byClaudius Ptolemy in the second century.[21][12] The Cheras are referred to asKedalaputo (Sanskrit: "Kerala Putra") in the EmperorAshoka'sPali edicts (third century BCE, Rock Edicts II and XII).[19]
There are brief references in the works ofKatyayana (c. third-to-fourth centuries BCE), the philosopherPatanjali (c. fifth century BCE), and Maurya statesman and philosopherKautilya (Chanakya) (c. 3rd - 4th century BCE). The Sanskrit grammarianPanini (c. sixth-to-fifth centuries BCE) did not mention either the Kerala people or the land.[22]
Archaeologists have found epigraphic and numismatic evidence of the early Cheras.[23][12]
Archaeological discoveries confirm modernKarur, or Vanchi/Karuvur, the ancient Chera capital on the Amaravati river, as a major political, and economic centre of ancient south India.[26] It was an important centre of craft production, esp. jewel making, and inland trade. Excavations at Karur have yielded huge quantities of copper coins with Chera symbols such as the bow and arrow, and pieces of Romanamphorae. Vellavur, near Karur, and the Amaravati river bed are noted for the presence large quantities of Roman coins. Pugalur, noted for the rare Chera donative inscription in Tamil-Brahmi, is located around 10 miles north of Karur, on the south bank of the Kaveri River.[26] An ancient trade route, from ports such asMuchiri andThondi on the Kerala Coast through thePalghat Gap, along the Noyyal river, through Kodumanal, toKarur in interior Tamil Nadu can also be traced using extensive archaeological evidence.[27][26]
Historians have yet to precisely locateMuziris, known in Tamil as Muchiri, the foremost port in the Chera kingdom and a capital on the Malabar Coast. However, archaeological excavations atPattanam nearKochi increasingly suggest its identification with this location.[8] Pattanam is notable for the remains of a brick-lined wharf made of laterite granules, lime, and clay. Other discoveries include amphora sherds, terra sigillata, carnelian intaglios, and fragments of Roman glass.[28] Roman coins have been discovered in large numbers from central Kerala and the Coimbatore-Karur region (Kottayam-Kannur,Valluvally,Iyyal,Vellalur and Kattankanni)[29][27]
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Dynastic coins, primarily recovered from the bed of theAmaravati River in central Tamil Nadu, provide valuable historical insights into this period.[29][30] Often found as surface or stray discoveries or held in private collections, these coins mainly consist of punch-marked designs.[10] Typically square in shape and made of copper, its alloys, or silver, they frequently feature a bow and arrow—the traditional emblem of the Cheras—on the obverse, sometimes accompanied by a legend. Silver punch-marked coins, imitating imperialMaurya coins and bearing a Chera bow on the reverse, have also been reported.[13][31] Bronze dies for minting punch-marked coins were discovered in the riverbed inKarur (indicating the presence of a Chera mint there).[13] Additionally, hundreds of copper coins attributed to the Cheras have been excavated atPattanam, Cochin, in central Kerala.[13][31] It is also known that the Cheras counter-struck silver Roman coins.[11]
Other major discoveries from central Tamil country include several silver portrait coins, such as one featuring a portrait with the Tamil-Brahmi legend "Makkotai" above it, found in the Krishna riverbed nearKarur, and another with a portrait and the legend "Kuttuvan Kotai" above it. Both of these impure silver coins are tentatively dated to around the first century CE or slightly later. The reverse sides of both coins are blank.[29] Impure silver coins bearing the Chera legends "Kollippurai"/"Kollipporai" and "Kol-Irumporai" have also been discovered at Karur.[13] A silver coin depicting a person wearing a Roman-style bristled-crown helmet was also found in the Amaravati riverbed in Karur; its reverse side features a bow and arrow, the traditional symbol of the Chera family.[29]
A macro analysis of the Makkotai coin reveals strong similarities to contemporaryRoman silver coins, and the portrait coins are generally considered imitations of Roman coinage.[29][13] The legends, representing the names or titles of Chera rulers, are typically inscribed inTamil-Brahmi characters on the obverse, while the reverse often features a bow and arrow symbol. Evidence of an alliance between the Cheras and the Cholas is seen in a joint coin, which displays the Chola tiger on the obverse and the Chera bow and arrow on the reverse. Additionally,Lakshmi-type coins, possibly of Sri Lankan origin, have been discovered at Karur.[13]
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The events described in the early Tamil texts, or theSangam literature, are dated to around the first or second centuries CE based on theGajabahu-Chenguttuvan synchronism, which is derived from certain verses in the Tamil epic poem Silappathikaram.[32] Despite its reliance on a number of conjectures, this method is considered the sheet anchor for dating early historic south India, as complementary epigraphical and archaeological evidence broadly seems to support the Gajabahu chronology.[33][34][35]
Ilango Adigal, the author of Silappathikaram, describes the renowned Chera ruler Chenguttuvan, a central figure in the epic, as his elder brother. He also mentions Chenguttuvan's consecration of a temple for the goddess Pattini (Kannaki) atVanchi.[36] According to the poem, a king namedGajabahu—identified with Gajabahu, a second-century ruler of Sri Lanka—was among those present at the Pattini temple consecration at Vanchi.[37][38] Based on this context, Chenguttuvan and the other Chera rulers can be dated to either the first/the last quarter of the second century.[6]
A large body of Tamil works from thec. second century BCE to third century CE, collectively known as theSangam (Academy) Literature, describes a number of Chera, Chola, and Pandya rulers.[39][40] These praise-filled poetic eulogies often glorify the rulers' accomplishments and virtues, perhaps serving to legitimize their political power.[41]
Among these, the most important sources for the Cheras are thePathitrupathu, theAgananuru and thePurananuru.[22] The Pathitrupattu, the fourth book in theEttuthokai anthology, mentions several rulers (and possible heirs-apparents) of the Chera family.[3] Each Chera is praised in ten songs sung by a court poet.[39] The title Pathitrupathu indicates that there were ten texts, each consisting of a decad of lyrics; however, two of these have not yet been discovered.[42] Additionally, the collection has not yet been worked into a connected history and settled chronology.[32]
| Chera (Decad and Bard) |
|---|
| Uthiyan Cheralathan |
| Uthiyan Cheralathan is generally considered the earliest known ruler of the Chera family from the Sangam texts and the possible hero of the lost first decade of Pathitrupathu. According to thePurananuru, he was known by the title "Vanavaramban" (the Beloved of the Gods).[43] He is described in thePurananuru andAgananuru as the Chera ruler who prepared the great feast ("the Perum Chotru") for Pandavas and the Kaurava during theKurukshetra War.[43] He married Nallini, daughter of Veliyan Venman, and was the father of Nedum Cheralathan.[43] Uthiyan Cheralathan is probably identical to Perum Cheralathan, who fought against the Chola ruler Karikala at theBattle of Venni, where he was wounded on the back. Unable to bear the disgrace, the Chera ended his life through slow starvation.[43] |
| Nedum Cheral Athan (Decad II, Kannanar)[3] |
| Nedum Cheral Athan, the son of Uthiyan Cheral Athan and Veliyan Nallini, was a prominent ruler of the Chera dynasty. He was known by the title "Imayavaramban" and was praised for subduing "seven crowned kings" to attain the title ofAdhiraja.[44][45] Poet Kannanar lauds him for his conquests, stating that he defeated enemies from Kumari to the Himalayas and carved the Chera bow emblem on the Himalayas. Renowned for his hospitality, he gifted Kannanar a part of Umbar Kattu.[44][45] Among his greatest adversaries were the Kadambus (possibly theKadambas), whom he defeated in battle.[45] He is also said to have conquered an island, guarded by the kadambu tree, by crossing the ocean.[46] Poet Mamular praises his conquest of Mantai.[45] He is also noted for punishing and extracting ransom from the Yavanas.[46] Nedum Cheralathan is sometimes identified with Kudakko Nedum Cheralathan. During his reign, Chola ruler Neytalankanal Ilam Chettu Chenni captured Pamalur, a territory belonging to the Chera. This led to a fierce battle at Por between the Cheras and the Cholas, in which both rulers perished.[47] |
| Palyanai Sel Kelu Kuttuvan (Decad III, Palai Kauthamanar)[3] |
| Son of Uthiyan Cheral Athan (younger brother of Imayavaramban Nedum Cheral Athan)[48] Credited as the conqueror of "Konkar Nadu".[48] Described as lord of Puzhi Nadu and the Cheruppu and Aiyirai Mountains.[48] Headquarters was located on the mouth river Periyar.[48] |
| Kalankai Kanni Narmudi Cheral (Decad IV, Kappiyattukku Kappiyanar)[49] |
| Son of Imayavaramban.[50] Narmudi Cheral led an expedition against Nedumidal Anji (identified with the Adigaiman/Satyaputra of Tagadur). Initially the Chera was defeated by Nannan of Ezhimala in the battle of Pazhi, later defeated and killed Nannan in the battle of Vakai Perum Turai.[44][38] Performed his coronation using holy water from both the western and eastern oceans (brought by a relay of elephants).[46] Also known as "Vanavaramban".[50] |
| Chenguttuvan (Decad V, Paranar)[49] |
| Son of Nedum Cheralathan. "Kadal Pirakottiya" Chenguttuvan is identified with "Kadalottiya" Vel Kezhu Kuttuvan. Chenguttuvan was a son of Nedum Cheralathan.[51] "Kadal Pirakottiya" Chenguttuvan was the most illustrious ruler of the early Cheras. Under his reign, the Chera territory probably extended from Kollimalai (near Karur Vanchi) in the east to Thondi and Mantai (Kerala) on the western coast.[38][44] He is also described as the Kuttuvan (the lord of the Kuttuvar people or the master of Kuttanadu).[51] Chenguttuvan successfully intervened in a succession dispute in the Chola kingdom and established his relativeKilli on the Chola throne. The rivals of Killi were defeated in the battle of Vayil (probably near Uraiyur). He won a major victory at another location called "Viyalur" (perhaps in the country ofEzhimala).[51][6] Chenguttuvan camped at a location called "Idumbil" with his warriors. The "fort" of Kodukur, perhaps in the Kongu country, was also destroyed. Chenguttuvan is said to have defeated a warrior called Mokur Mannan (one of the Chera's allies was Arukai, an enemy of the Mokurs).[51][6] According to the Tamil epic poemChilapathikaram, Chenguttuvan led his army to the Ganges Valley in northern India (to collect the sacred stone from the Himalayas for the idol of goddess Kannaki Pattini).[46] The poem names the wife of Chenguttuvan as certain "Illango Venmal".[38][44] The Kadambas are described as the arch enemies of the Chera ruler in theChilapathikaram. He also conquered the Kongar people (Kongu people) in a martial campaign (Chilappathikaram).[51][6] |
| Adu Kottu Pattu Cheralathan[52] (Decad VI, Kakkai Padiniyar Nachellaiyar)[49] |
| Successor of Vel Kezhu Kuttuvan.[37] Son of Nedum Cheralathan and brother of Narmudi Cheral.[52] Probably identical with the Perum Cheralathan who fought against the CholaKarikala at the battle of Venni. In the battle of Venni, Cheralathan was wounded on the back byKarikala. Unable to bear the disgrace, the Chera committed suicide by slow starvation.[46][52] Controlled the port of Naravu.[52] |
| Selva Kadumko Valia Athan (Decad VII, Kapilar)[49] |
| Son of Anthuvan Cheral.[53] Selva Kadumko Valia Athan controlled Pandar and Kodumanam (Kodumanal).[46] He probably married the sister of the wife of Nedum Cheralathan. Selva Kadumko defeated the combined armies of thePandyas and theCholas.[53][3] Father of Perum Cheral Irumporai. Died at Chikkar Palli.[54] Identified with Mantharan Poraiyan Kadumko. Pachum Puttu Poraiyan and Perumputtu Poraiyan.[53]He is identified with Ko Athan Che[ra]l Irumporai mentioned in the Aranattar-malai inscription of Pugalur (c. 2nd century CE).[37][3] |
| Perum Cheral Irumporai[55] (Decad VIII, Arichil Kizhar)[49] |
| "Thagadur Erinta" Perum Cheral Irumporai defeated the combined armies of the Pandyas, Cholas and that of the chief of Thagadur, Adigaman Ezhni, atThagadur. He was called "the lord of Puzhinadu", "the lord of Kollimalai" and "the lord of [Poom]Puhar". The city of Puhar was the ancient Chola headquarters. Perum Cheral Irumporai also annexed the territories of a minor Idayar chief called Kazhuval (Kazhuvul).[56] He is sometimes addressed as "Kodai Marpa". He was the father of Illam Cheral Irumporai.[55] |
| Illam Cheral Irumporai[57] (Decad IX, Perunkundur Kizhar[3]) |
| Illam Cheral Irumporai purportedly defeated the Chola ruler Perum Chola, Ilam Pazhaiyan Maran and Vicchi, and destroyed "five forts". He was known as "Kudakko" or the lord of the West, the lord of Thondi, "Kongar Nadu", "Kuttuvar Nadu", and "Puzhi Nadu".[57] He is described as the descendant ofNedum Cheralathan.[45] |
The following Cheras are knowns fromPurananuru collection (some of the names are re-duplications).[42]
Recent studies on early historic south Indian history suggest that the three major rulers – thePandya, the Chera and theChola – were customarily based inMadurai,Vanchi-Karuvur (Karur) andUraiyur (Tiruchirappalli), in present-day Tamil Nadu, respectively.[5] They had established major ports on the Indian Ocean atKorkai, Muchiri (Muziris), andPuhar (Kaveripumpattinam) respectively.[8][5]
The Chera country of the early historical (pre-Pallava) period consisted of present-day central Kerala and the Kongu region of western Tamil Nadu.[1][61] Multiple branches of the Chera family ruled simultaneously in central Kerala, withMuchiri-Vanchi andThondi as their two regional headquarters—both also being important ports on the Indian Ocean—and in the Kongu country (the Irumporai/Porai branch), withVanchi-Karur as their capital, an important political and economic center. These collateral branches likely competed for the leadership of the Chera country.[46][62] The southern tip of Kerala was controlled by the minorAy dynasty, while theEzhimala rulers controlled the northern Kerala.[8][46]
The nature of political organization in pre-Pallava (early historic) southern India remains a subject of active debate among scholars and historians.[3][61][8] A major point of contention is the interpretation ofearly Tamil poems (or the Sangam Literature) alongside archaeological evidence.[63][64] A balanced perspective suggests that the existence of at least a rudimentarystate structure in early historic south India cannot be denied.[11]
A school of academics/scholars argues that developments in early historic south India occurred within the framework of a state polity.[65][8][66] Supporting this perspective is the presence ofTamil-Brahmi inscriptions, dynastic coin issues, refinedSangam literature, urban centers such asMadurai andVanchi-Karur, specialized crafts, and long-distance trade, particularly maritime commerce.[11] Evidence of differential access to and control over resources can be found in poetic references to rulers bestowing expensive gifts, such as gold coins and precious stones.[11] The rulers were major consumers of luxury goods acquired throughIndian Ocean spice trade. They also developed key trading ports, such asMuchiri and Korkai, and imposed rudimentary tolls and customs duties.[11] The Pugalur inscriptions refer to the Chera king as Ko, while princes carried the suffixes Ko or Kon in their names. Additionally, references to an investiture ceremony for the Chera heir apparent perhaps highlight the structured nature of succession.[67]
At the top of the political hierarchy of early historic south India were the three crowned kings, or Vendars, each distinguished by their royal insignias and emblems of power. Lesser rulers, known as Velir chieftains, were likely required to pay tribute to the Vendars. Violent conflicts were a common feature of early historic south Indian politics, as kings and chieftains frequently formed alliances and waged battles against one another.[68]
However, this view is sometimes questioned by scholars such asR. Champakalakshmi.[11] They argue that urbanization in early historic south India did not occur within the framework of a state polity. Instead, this period was characterized by tribal chiefdoms or, at most, "potential monarchies".[11] The Vendar rulers exercised only limited control over the rice cultivating agricultural plains and relied primarily on tribute and plunder for their sustenance. There was no regular or extensive system of taxation, nor was there a centralized coercive authority.[11] Political organization was based on communal resource ownership, with production structured around kinship ties. Authority was maintained through various redistributive social relationships, supported by the predatory accumulation of resources.[8] Ancient south India consisted of kinship-based, redistributive chiefdom economies. Subsistence was largely agro-pastoral, and politics was driven by competition and conflict.[8][15] Scholars from this school explicitly use the terms "chief" and "chiefdom" to describe the Chera ruler and the Chera polity of early historic south India, respectively.[1][69]
In general, early Tamil texts or theSangam literature (c. second century BCE - c. third century CE) reflect the southern Indian cultural tradition and some elements of the northern Indian cultural tradition, which by then was coming into contact with the south.[6][8] Most of the Chera population, like the rest of southern India, probably followed nativeDravidian belief systems.[70] Religious practice might have mostly consisted of sacrifices to gods such asMurugan.[6] The worship of departed heroes was common in the Tamil country, along with tree worship and other kinds ofancestor worship. The war goddessKorravai was propitiated with elaborate offerings of meat andtoddy. Korravai was later assimilated into the present-day goddessDurga.[70]
Early Tamil texts refers to severalsocial stratifications in the early historic south Indian society.[6] They sometimes use the term kudi ("group") to denote some type of antecedent to present-daycaste.[74][66]
In the early historic southern India, women were probably accorded high status (in comparison to the medieval period),[74][66] and poets and musicians were held in high regard in society. Early Tamil texts include several references about the lavish patronage of court poets. Professional poets of all genders composed texts praising their patron rulers, for which they were generously rewarded.[75] It is assumed the institution of "sabha" in south-Indian villages for local administration began during the early historic period.[6]
The initial phase ofurbanization in southern India, and the Chera country, is typically linked to the period from the 3rd century BCE to the 3rd century CE, though recent evidence suggests it may have begun earlier. Some scholars argue that this urbanization was not driven by socio-economic changes but was instead stimulated by external trade. However, this view is considered difficult to accept, as trade cannot be seen as an independent factor separate from socio-economic processes.[76]
Trading relations with merchants fromGraeco-Roman world, or theYavanas, and with northern India provided considerable economic momentum for southern India; the main economic activity was trade across the Indian Ocean.[6] The earliest Graeco-Roman accounts referring to the Cheras are byPliny the Elder in the first century, in the first-century textPeriplus Maris Erythraei, and byClaudius Ptolemy in the second century.[20] The Periplus Maris Erythraei portrays the trade in the territory of Cheras or "Keprobotras" in detail. The port ofMuziris, or Muchiri in Tamil, located in the Chera country, was the most-important centre in theMalabar Coast, which according to the Periplus "abounded with large ships of Romans, Arabs and Greeks".[77] Bulk spices, ivory, timber, pearls and gems were exported from Chera country, and southern India, to the Middle East/Mediterranean regions.[77]
Geographical advantages, such as favorable monsoon winds that carried ships directly from Arabia to south India, the abundance of exotic spices in the interiorGhat Mountains and the many rivers connecting the Ghats with theArabian Sea allowed the Cheras to become a major power in ancient southern India.[7][8] Trading in spices and other commodities with Middle Eastern/Mediterranean Graeco-Roman navigators was perhaps extant before beginning of the Common Era and was consolidated in the first century CE.[8][78][79] In the first century, the Romans conqueredEgypt, which probably helped them gain dominance in the Indian Ocean spice trade.[20][77]
The Graeco-Romans brought vast amounts of gold in exchange for commodities such asblack pepper.[8][80] The Roman coin hoards that have been found in Kerala and Tamil Nadu provide evidence of this trade. The first-century writer Pliny the Elder lamented "the drain of Roman gold into India and China" for luxuries such as spices, silk and muslin. The Indian Ocean spice trade dwindled with the decline of the Roman empire in the third and fourth centuries,[8] and they were replaced by Chinese and Arab/Middle Eastern navigators.[65]
The nature of the spice trade between the ancient Chera country, and southern India, and the Middle East/Mediterranean regions is disputed.[8][75] It remains uncertain whether this trade with the Mediterranean world was conducted on equal terms by local rulers and merchants, such as the Cheras and Pandyas.[81][6] However, early Tamil poems record that these rulers were consumers of luxury goods associated with the Indian Ocean spice trade. They were also involved in long-distance maritime trade, likely by developing ports and imposing rudimentary tolls and customs duties.[68]
There are several ancient Tamil, Greek and Roman literary references to high-carbon steel from South Asia. The crucible steel production process probably started in the sixth century BCE in southern India (as evidenced fromKodumanal in Tamil Nadu,Golconda inTelangana, andKarnataka) andSri Lanka. The Romans called this steel "the finest steel in the world" and referred to it as "Seric". It was perhaps exported to the Middle East/Mediterranean world by c. early 5th century BC.[82][83][84]
The steel was exported as cakes of steely iron that were known as "wootz".[85] Wootz steel was produced by heating blackmagnetite ore in the presence of carbon in a sealed clay crucible inside a charcoal furnace to completely remove slag. An alternative was to smelt the ore to givewrought iron, then heat and hammer it to remove slag. The carbon source was probably bamboo trees and leaves from plants such as avārai (Senna auriculata).[85][86] The Chinese and Sri Lankans perhaps adopted the production methods of wootz steel from the south Indians by the fifth century BCE.[87][88]
In Sri Lanka, this early steel-making method employed a unique wind furnace that was driven by the monsoon winds. Production sites from early historic period have been found atAnuradhapura,Tissamaharama andSamanalawewa, as well as imported iron and steel artefacts from Kodumanal in southern India. A c. 2th century BC Tamil trade guild in Tissamaharama, in the south-east of Sri Lanka, transported some of the oldest iron and steel artefacts and production processes to the island from early historic southern India.[89][90][91][92]
After the fifth century, the influence of the Cheras significantly declined compared to the early historic or pre-Pallava period.[14] Comparatively little is known about the Cheras during this period.[93] The Chera collateral branch fromKarur in the Kongu country, also called the "Keralas", seems to have dominated the former Chera territories, including present-dayKerala.[94]
The region was affected by the rise of theKalabhras,[93] and then by theChalukya andPallava-Pandya domination, and the ascent of theRashtrakutas andCholas.[95][96] Present-day central Kerala likely detached from the larger "Kongu Chera"/"Kerala kingdom" to form the "Chera Perumal kingdom" around the 9th century CE.[94] The medieval Chera kingdom in Kerala had alternating friendly and hostile relations with the neigbouring Cholas and thePandyas.[97] The Cholas later attacked the kingdom and eventually forced it into submission (early 11th century CE), primarily to break its monopoly on the Indian Ocean spice trade with the Middle East.[97][98] When the Chera kingdom in Kerala was dissolved in the early 12th century, most of its autonomous chiefdoms became independent.[99] Academics tend to identify the Alvar saintKulasekhara and the Nayanar saintCherman Perumal (literally "the Chera king") as some of the earliest Perumals.[100] The port of Kollam in the kingdom was a major hub for Indian Ocean trade with the Middle East and South East Asia.[101] During this period, the Cheras, along with thePandyas, notably made extensive use of the Vattezhuthu script.[102]
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