For reasons still debated, Charles experienced lengthy periods of ill health throughout his life. This made the question of who would succeed him central to European diplomacy for much of his reign, with onehistorian writing that "from the day of his birth, they were waiting for his death".[1]
Born 6 November 1661, Charles was the only surviving son ofPhilip IV of Spain and his second wife, his nieceMariana of Austria. Marriage within the same extended family was then common among the nobility,[c] but theSpanish andAustrianHabsburgs were unusual in the extent to which they followed this practice. Of eleven marriages contracted by Spanish monarchs between 1450 and 1661, most contained some element ofconsanguinity, Philip and Mariana being one of two unions between an uncle and his niece.[2][d] This policy may also have been driven bylimpieza de sangre or "blood purity" statutes enacted in the early 16th century, which remained in force until the 1860s.[3]
Intramarriage accentuated the so-called "Habsburg jaw", a physical characteristic common in both Spanish and Austrian Habsburgs. One contemporary reported this was so pronounced in Charles that he swallowed his food without thoroughly chewing, leading to frequent stomach problems.[4] A 2019 study based on an analysis of Habsburg portraits concluded this feature was likely due to arecessive trait, but in the absence of genetic material, such claims remain speculative.[5]
The precise causes of Charles' ill-health remain disputed.[6] Based on an analysis of contemporary accounts, some modern researchers argue they may have been due to one or more autosomal recessive disorders,[7][8] while others suggest anherpetic infection incurred as an infant, causinghydrocephalus.[9] Neither his elder sister,Margaret, who married her maternal uncleLeopold I, nor their child and his nieceMaria, had similar health issues.[6]
Despite these physical challenges, suggestions that Charles remained largely uneducated into his teens are incorrect. Ramos del Manzano, a legal expert from theUniversity of Salamanca, was appointed his tutor when he was six.[14] From the age of 12, he received lessons in music fromJuan del Vado and mathematics from Jose Zaragoza, a professor at theColegio Imperial de Madrid.[15]
The extent of his physical and mental disabilities is hard to assess, since little is known for certain, and many claims are either unproven or incorrect. While prone to illness, he was extremely active physically, and contemporaries reported he spent much of his time hunting.[16] One often cited example of his alleged mental incapacity is the period he spent sleeping with his father'sdisinterred body; this was in fact done under instructions from Mariana, whose doctors advised this would help him produce an heir.[17]
Although reputedly subject to bouts of depression, his participation in government and reports from his council and observers including theFrench ambassador indicate his mental capacities remained intact.[18] A report from 1691 submitted by an envoy of theSultan of Morocco, relates that he was received by Charles himself, who played a full part in the discussions.[19] Costanzo Operti, aSavoyard diplomat who attended regular audiences with Charles during theNine Years' War, described him as affable and generous but shy and lacking self-confidence, characteristics noted by other foreign diplomats.[20]
Since Charles was a legal minor when Philip died on 17 September 1665, Mariana was appointed QueenRegent by theCouncil of Castile. TheSpanish Empire remained an enormous global confederation, but its economic supremacy was increasingly challenged byEngland and theDutch Republic, and its position in Europe seriously weakened by the expansionist policies and the power ofLouis XIV of France.
Her ability to respond effectively to the challenges facing the Empire was hampered by an ongoing power struggle withJohn Joseph of Austria, hereafter referred to as Don Juan, Charles's older, illegitimate half-brother. In addition, enacting essential reforms was complicated since Spain was apersonal union between theCrown of Castile andCrown of Aragon, each with very distinct political cultures and traditions.[f][21] Infighting between those who ruled in Charles's name during his regency did little to help, but it is debatable how far they can be held responsible for long-term trends predating his reign. The monarchy proved remarkably resilient, and when Charles died, remained largely intact.[22]
However, government finances were in perpetual crisis, the Crown declaring bankruptcy nine times between 1557 and 1666, including 1647, 1652, 1662, and 1666.[23] Following the policy established by her husband Philip, Mariana ruled through a "valido",[g] the first being her personal confessor and fellow Austrian,Juan Everardo Nithard.[24] His most urgent task was to end the costly wars withFrance andPortugal, achieved in the 1668 treaties ofAix-la-Chapelle andLisbon. Despite acknowledging their necessity, Don Juan forced Mariana to dismiss Nithard in February 1669, who replaced him withFernando de Valenzuela. He was a member of the lowerhidalgo class, so his appointment was deeply resented by theGrandees who normally filled such positions.[25]
In 1673, Spain was drawn into theFranco-Dutch War, placing additional strain on the economy, and Don Juan renewed efforts to remove Mariana as Regent. A month before Charles became a legal adult on 6 November 1675, he indicated his intention to take control of government, supported by his brother. When the Regency Council requested a two-year extension of their office on 4 November, Charles initially refused, but was later pressured into accepting. He was also forced to issue a Royal Decree ordering Don Juan to leave Madrid.[26]
Charles's illegitimate half-brother,John Joseph of Austria, whose political feud with his mother undermined the stability of his regime
Don Juan finally gained control of the government in January 1678 and exiled Valenzuela to thePhilippines. His first action was to make peace with France in the 1678Treaties of Nijmegen, with Spain cedingFranche-Comté and areas of theSpanish Netherlands returned in 1668.[27] Seeking to minimise future conflict between the two countries, in August 1679 Don Juan brokered a match between Charles and the 17-year-oldMarie Louise of Orléans, eldest niece of Louis XIV and daughter ofPhilippe I, Duke of Orléans. Arranging the marriage was Don Juan's last significant act; he died shortly before it took place in November 1679.[28]
In February 1680,Juan Francisco de la Cerda, 8th Duke of Medinaceli became the newvalido. He clashed with Marie-Louise over the alleged influence exerted over her by the French ambassador,Pierre de Villars, who was expelled from Madrid in 1681, badly affecting the relationship between the two.[29] Medinaceli was further undermined by economic problems and the loss ofLuxembourg following the 1683War of the Reunions. In June 1684, he sought to bolster his support by appointing theCount of Oropesa as President of theCouncil of Castile, the second most powerful position in the state. However, continuing ill-health led him to resign in April 1685, with Oropesa taking over as de factovalido.[30] He retained this position until 1690.[31]
The so-called "Little Ice Age" of the 17th century was a period of crisis throughout Europe, leading to poor harvests and economic decline.[32] Spain was especially affected, due in part to the parlous economic situation, particularly in Castile, where the population dropped from 6.5 million in 1600 to fewer than 5 million in 1680, whilst figures for Spain as a whole were 8.5 to 6.6 million.[33] This was exacerbated by a series of wars with France and the need to defend the Empire, which were a constant drain on public expenditure. In 1663, Philip IV had converted state debt intogovernment bonds, orjuros, but high rates of interest meant taxes were often assigned to creditors years in advance to pay current liabilities. Although silver bullion imports from the Americas increased, the vast majority went to paying off foreign debtors.[34]
The globalisation of the Spanish trading system meant outsiders often had the most to lose from its collapse. By the 1670s, the bulk of foreign trade was controlled by Dutch and English merchants, while the domestic economy relied on French labour and imported wheat. The Marqués de Varinas, a senior colonial official, observed in 1687 that the Empire continued to exist in its present form "only because it enables the English, Dutch and French to exploit [it] more cheaply".[35]
In the 1680s, Spanish officials issued a series of drastic deflationary decrees, revaluing the coinage at 25% of its previous value.[36] The immediate impact was the total disruption of commerce and collapse of financial credit; in response, debtors were given three months to repay government debts using the existing rate, later extended to six months. Having stabilised the position, in 1686 the coinage was readjusted to a more favourable rate and thereafter left unaltered.[37]
Marie Louise was blamed for Charles' failure to produce an heir, while primitive fertility treatments gave her severe intestinal problems.[38] She died in February 1689, shortly after the outbreak of theNine Years' War with France. On the basis of her recorded symptoms, modern doctors believe her illness was almost certainlyappendicitis.[h][39] A new wife was selected from a family famous for its fertility,Maria Anna of Neuburg, daughter ofPhilip William, Elector Palatine, and sister-in-law to Emperor Leopold.[40]
Aproxy marriage took place in August 1689 before a formal ceremony in May 1690.[39] Maria Anna also failed to produce an heir, almost certainly because Charles was by now physically incapable of doing so; hisautopsy later revealed his sole remaining testicle wasatrophied.[41] His mother died on 16 May 1696, by which time Charles' health was clearly failing, making the succession increasingly urgent. Since the Crown of Spain passed according tocognatic primogeniture, it could be inherited through the female line. This enabled Charles' sistersMaria Theresa (1638–1683) and Margaret Theresa to pass their rights to the children of their marriages with Louis XIV and Emperor Leopold. However, to prevent a union between Spain andFrance, Maria Theresa had renounced her inheritance rights on her marriage; in return, Louis was promised a dowry of 500,000 goldécus, a huge sum that was never paid.[42]
ThePeace of Ryswick which ended the Nine Years' War in 1697 was the result of mutual exhaustion, and left the issue of the succession unresolved.Leopold I, Holy Roman Emperor reluctantly signed the treaty in October 1697, but viewed it as a temporary pause in hostilities.[43] Leopold and Margaret's daughter Maria Antonia had marriedMaximilian II Emanuel, Elector of Bavaria, and they had a son before her death in 1692,Joseph Ferdinand. In theTreaty of The Hague (1698), England, France and the Dutch Republic attempted to impose a diplomatic solution by making him heir to the bulk of the Spanish monarchy, with France gainingNaples,Sicily and the Spanish province ofGipuzkoa. In return, Leopold's younger sonCharles was made ruler ofMilan, a possession considered vital to the security of Austria's southern border.[44]
The Spanish government refused to approve any division of their territories, although they accepted Joseph Ferdinand as Charles' successor.[45] The death of Joseph Ferdinand in 1699 from smallpox led to theTreaty of London (1700), which made Archduke Charles the new heir, with Spanish possessions in Europe split between France,Savoy and Austria. Charles altered his will in favour of the Archduke, but once again stipulated an undivided Spanish monarchy.[46]
In September 1700, Charles became ill again; by 28 September he was no longer able to eat, andLuis Manuel Fernández de Portocarrero persuaded him to appoint Louis XIV's grandson,Philip of Anjou, as his heir.[47] He died on 1 November 1700, at age 38. The autopsy records his "heart was the size of a peppercorn; his lungs corroded; his intestines rotten and gangrenous; he had a single testicle, black as coal, and his head was full of water."[48] The latter suggestshydrocephalus, a disease often associated with childhood measles, one of many illnesses contracted by Charles.[9]
Charles' reign has traditionally been viewed as one of decline and decay, a foreign ambassador commenting in 1691 "it is incomprehensible how this monarchy survives".[35] More recent studies argue "both the myth of decline and an incapable king are simplistic and inexact".[50] Despite their disastrous short-term impact, the financial measures taken by his advisors ended the chronic instability which had affected the Spanish currency throughout the 17th century, and helped drive sustainable economic growth.[51] Many of the commercial and political policies initiated under Charles formed the basis for reforms enacted by hisBourbon successors.[52]
His reign also saw the final political eclipse of theSpanish Inquisition, precipitated by its intervention in the succession crisis. When Charles changed his will in favour of Philip in 1700, the Inquisitor GeneralBaltasar de Mendoza y Sandoval, an ally of Maria Anna, arrested his personal confessor Froilán Díaz on a charge of 'bewitching' the King. When Díaz was found not guilty, Mendoza attempted to arrest those who voted for his acquittal, resulting in the establishment of a Council to investigate the Inquisition; although it survived until 1834, its influence had ended.[53]
Though not as fond of the arts as his father, Charles employed artists such as the Italian painterLuca Giordano andClaudio Coello to decorateEl Escorial. In 1690 the latter created one of the last and most significant examples ofSpanish Baroque painting,Charles II adores the Holy Eucharist.[54]
Bordas, C.; Robledo, L. (1998). "José Zaragozá's Box: Science and Music in Charles II's Spain".Early Music.XXVI (3):391–413.doi:10.1093/earlyj/XXVI.3.391.JSTOR3128699.
Garcia, Bernardo José; Alvariño, Antonio Álvarez Ossorio, eds. (2015).Vísperas de Sucesión: Europa y la Monarquía de Carlos II (in Spanish). Fundación Carlos de Amberes.ISBN978-84-87369-79-7.
García-Escudero López, Ángel; Arruza Echevarría, A; Padilla Nieva, Jaime; Puig Giró, Ramon (2009). "Charles II; from spell to genitourinary pathology".History of Urology.62 (3).
Gargantilla, P (2005).Enfermedades de los reyes de España. Los Austrias: de la locura de Juana a la impotencia de Carlos II el Hechizado (in Spanish). La Esfera De Los Libros S.L.ISBN978-84-9734-338-1.
Hargreaves-Mawdsley, HN (1979).Eighteenth-Century Spain 1700–1788: A Political, Diplomatic and Institutional History. Macmillan.ISBN0-333-14612-3.
Kamen, Henry (2002).Spain's Road to Empire (2003 ed.). Allen Lane.ISBN978-0-14-028528-4.
Kamen, Henry (1964). "The Decline of Castile: The Last Crisis".The Economic History Review.17 (1):63–76.doi:10.2307/2592691.JSTOR2592691.
Keevil, J.J (1954). "The Illness of Charles, Duke of Albany (Charles I), from 1600 to 1612: An Historical Case of Rickets".Journal of the History of Medicine and Allied Sciences.IX (4):407–419.doi:10.1093/jhmas/IX.4.407.PMID13212027.
Landers, Jane (1984). "Spanish Sanctuary: Fugitives in Florida, 1687-1790".Florida Historical Quarterly.62 (3):296–313.JSTOR30146288.
Maura, Gabriel (1879).Carlos II y su Corte (in Spanish) (2018 ed.). Wentworth Press.ISBN978-0-274-53825-6.{{cite book}}:ISBN / Date incompatibility (help)
Mitchell, Sylvia (2014). Cruz, Anne; Stampino, Maria (eds.).Habsburg Motherhood: The Power of Mariana of Austria, Queen Regent for Carlos II of Spain in "Early Modern Habsburg Women: Transnational Contexts, Cultural Conflicts, Dynastic Continuities". Routledge.ISBN978-1-4724-1164-8.
Nada, John (1962).Carlos the Bewitched: The Last Spanish Habsburg 1661-1700. Jonathan Cape.
Rule, John (2017). Onnekink, David; Mijers, Esther (eds.).The Partition Treaties, 1698-1700; A European View inRedefining William III: The Impact of the King-Stadholder in International Context. Routledge.ISBN978-1-138-25796-2.
Rommelse, Gijs (2011).Ideology and Foreign Policy in Early Modern Europe (1650–1750). Routledge.ISBN978-1-4094-1913-6.
Santaliestra, Olivan Laura (2014). "The Childhood of the Infantas Maria Teresa and Margarita Maria at Court". In Coolidge, Grace E (ed.).The Formation of the Child in Early Modern Spain. Ashgate Publishing.ISBN978-1-47-242880-6.
Stanhope, Alexander (1840).Spain Under Charles the Second; Extracts from the Correspondence of the Hon. Alexander Stanhope, British Minister at Madrid 1690-1699. John Murray.
Storrs, Christopher (2006).The Resilience of the Spanish Monarchy 1665–1700. OUP Oxford.ISBN0-19-924637-8.
Sullivan, E. J (1985). "Politics and Propaganda in theSagrada Forma by Claudio Coello".The Art Bulletin.67 (2):243–259.doi:10.2307/3050910.JSTOR3050910.
Generations are numbered by male-line descent from the first archdukes. Later generations are included although Austrian titles of nobility were abolished in 1919.
The generations indicate descent fromCarlos I, under whom the crowns of Castile and Aragon were united, forming the Kingdom of Spain. Previously, the title Infante had been largely used in the different realms.
_(Attr._to)_-_Portrait_of_Maria_Anna_of_Neuburg.JPG)
%2c_por_Claudio_Coello018.jpg)
.svg)
.svg)
.svg)
.svg)
.svg)
.svg)
.svg)
.svg)
