Zhang Xueliang Chang Hsueh-liang | |
|---|---|
張學良 | |
 Zhang in 1928 | |
| Warlord ofManchuria | |
| In office June 4 – December 29, 1928 | |
| Preceded by | Zhang Zuolin |
| Succeeded by | Office abolished |
| Personal details | |
| Born | (1901-06-03)June 3, 1901 Tai'an County,Fengtian,Qing Empire |
| Died | October 15, 2001(2001-10-15) (aged 100) Honolulu County,Hawaii, U.S. |
| Resting place | Valley of the Temples Memorial Park,Honolulu County,Hawaii |
| Nationality | Chinese |
| Spouses | |
| Children | 5 |
| Parent |
|
| Relatives | Zhang Xueming (brother) |
| Awards | Order of Rank and Merit Order of Wen-Hu Order of Blue Sky and White Sun |
| Nickname(s) | Young Marshal (Chinese:少帥;pinyin:shàoshuài) |
| Military service | |
| Allegiance |
|
| Branch/service | |
| Rank | General of the Army[citation needed] |
| Commands | Northeast Peace Preservation Forces |
| Battles/wars | |
| Zhang Xueliang | |||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Traditional Chinese | 張學良 | ||||||||||
| Simplified Chinese | 张学良 | ||||||||||
| |||||||||||
Zhang Xueliang[note 3] (Chinese:張學良; June 3, 1901[note 4] – October 15, 2001) was a Chinesegeneral who in 1928 succeeded his fatherZhang Zuolin as the commander of theNortheastern Army. He is best known for his role in theXi'an Incident in 1936, in which he arrestedChiang Kai-shek and forced him to form aSecond United Front with theChinese Communist Party against the Japanese.
In 1928, Zhang, at the time a general in the Northeastern Army, became the commander of the army and leader of theFengtian clique uponhis father's assassination. A reformer sympathetic tonationalist ideas, he completed theofficial reunification of China by pledging loyalty to theNationalist government, and used his powerful base to wield significant influence in the politics of theNanjing decade. Zhang followed Chiang's policy of nonresistance to theJapanese invasions of Manchuria in 1931 andRehe in 1933, after which he was forced to resign as head of the Northeastern Army. In 1935, Zhang was again appointed its commander to suppress the Communists, but became disillusioned with Chiang's policy of "stabilizing China before resisting Japan", and helped to plan theXi'an Incident. Following the incident, Chiang had Zhang arrested for insubordination and sentenced to house arrest, first in mainland China and then in Taiwan. Zhang would remain under confinement until 1988, a period of more than 50 years. He died ofpneumonia in 2001, at the age of 100.
Zhang Xueliang was born inHaicheng,Liaoning province on June 3, 1901. Zhang was educated by private tutors and, unlike his father, the warlordZhang Zuolin,[1] he felt at ease in the company of westerners.[2]
Zhang graduated fromFengtian Military Academy, was made a colonel in theFengtian Army, and appointed the commander of his father's bodyguards in 1919. In 1921 he was sent to Japan to observe military maneuvers, where he developed a special interest in aircraft. Later, he developed an air corps for the Fengtian Army, which was widely used in the battles that took place within theGreat Wall during the 1920s. In 1922, he was promoted to major general and commanded an army-sized force. Two years later, he was also made commander of the air units. Upon the death of his father in 1928, he succeeded him as the leader of the Northeast Peace Preservation Forces (popularly "Northeastern Army"), which controlled China's northeastern provinces ofHeilongjiang,Fengtian, andJilin.[3] In December of the same year he proclaimed his allegiance to theKuomintang (KMT; Chinese Nationalist Party).
The Japanese believed that Zhang Xueliang, who was known as a womanizer and anopium addict, would be much more subject to Japanese influence than was his father. On this premise, an officer of the JapaneseKwantung Army therefore killed his father,Zhang Zuolin,by exploding a bomb above his train while it crossed under a railroad bridge. Surprisingly, the younger Zhang proved to be more independent and skilled than anyone had expected and declared his support forChiang Kai-shek, leading to thereunification of China in 1928. With the assistance of Australian journalistWilliam Henry Donald and Dr.Harry Willis Miller, he overcame his opium addiction in 1933 with the administering ofCantharidin auto-serum therapy.[4]
He was given the nickname "Hero of History" (千古功臣) byPRC historians because of his desire to reunite China and rid it of Japanese invaders; and was willing to pay the price and become "vice" leader of China (not because it was good that he was supporting the Kuomintang).[citation needed] In order to rid his command of Japanese influence, he had two prominent pro-Tokyo officials executed in front of the assembled guests at a dinner party in January 1929. It was a hard decision for him to make. The two had powers over the heads of others. In May 1929, relations between the Kuomintang Nanjing and the excessively strengthened Feng Yuxiang worsened. In addition, the Japanese government, dissatisfied with the pro-Kuomintang policy of Zhang Zuolin, and now his son, threatened to "take the most decisive measures to ensure that the Kuomintang flag never flies over Manchuria". The "Young Marshal" supported Nanjing, and Feng's troops were pushed back to the outlying provinces of Chahar and Suiyuan, and in July 1929, Japan officially recognized Kuomintang China. At the same time, Zhang Xueliang and Chiang Kai-shek held a personal meeting in Beiping, at which a decision was made on the armed seizure of the Chinese Eastern Railway or CER. By pushing Zhang Xueliang to take this step, Chiang Kai-shek sought to make the Young Marshal completely dependent on Nanjing and at the same time raise his prestige and get most of the profits from the operation of the CER at the disposal of Nanjing. Zhang Xueliang, in turn, believed that the capture of the CER would strengthen his position in the Northeast, allow him to personally manage the profits of the CER, and ensure his independence from Nanjing. As a result, on July 10, 1929, the Conflict on the CER began. However, the Red Army showed a higher combat capability, and the conflict ended with the signing of the Khabarovsk Protocol of December 22, 1929.
In 1930, when warlordsFeng Yuxiang andYan Xishan attempted tooverthrow Chiang Kai-shek'sKuomintang government, Zhang stepped in to support theNanjing-based government against the Northern warlords in exchange for control of the key railroads inHebei and the customs revenues from the port city ofTianjin. A year later, in theSeptember 18 Mukden Incident, Japanese troops attacked Zhang's forces inShenyang in order to provoke a full-on war with China, which Chiang did not want to face until his forces were stronger.[5] In accordance with this strategy, Zhang's armies withdrew from the front lines without significant engagements, leading to the effectiveJapanese occupation of Zhang's former northeastern domain.[6] There has been speculation that Chiang Kai-Shek wrote a letter to Zhang asking him to pull his forces back, but Zhang later stated that he himself issued the orders. Apparently, Zhang was aware of how weak his forces were compared to the Japanese and wished to preserve his position by retaining a sizeable army. Nonetheless, this would still be in line with Chiang's overall strategic standings.
After retreating from Manchuria, Zhang and the Northeastern Army took up defensive positions along the Great Wall inRehe.[7] During this time, Zhang sponsored China's first participation in theOlympic Games.[8]
The Japaneseattacked Zhang again in 1933, and after a weak resistance, Zhang was denied reinforcements from the central government and had to retreat further south.[7] He resigned his posts, underwent treatment for his opium addiction, and left for a year-long exile in Europe.[9] When Zhang returned in January 1934, he sought to regain his position in charge of the Northeastern Army. However, this was strongly opposed by both the Japanese and some Nationalist leaders critical of his failure to stop the Japanese advance. Chiang therefore reassigned him to an anti-Communist force in Wuhan, alienating Zhang and the other leaders of the Northeastern Army.[10] Over the next year, Zhang became a more outspoken critic of Chiang's policy of appeasement towards Japan.[11] He continued to pressure Chiang to reappoint him as head of the Northeastern Army, with the hope that he could use the force to fight the Japanese. On October 2, 1935, Chiang granted to Zhang's request, but only because he needed the Northeastern Army's support to crush the final Communist base at Yan'an.[12]
On April 6, 1936, Zhang met with CPC delegateZhou Enlai to plan the end of theChinese Civil War. KMT leader GeneralissimoChiang Kai-shek at the time took a passive position against Japan and considered the communists to be a greater danger to the Republic of China than the Japanese, and his overall strategy was to annihilate the communists before focusing his efforts on the Japanese.[5] He believed that "communism was a cancer while the Japanese represented a superficial wound." Growing nationalist anger against Japan made this position very unpopular, and led to Zhang's action against Chiang, known as theXi'an Incident.
In December 1936, Zhang and GeneralYang Hucheng kidnapped Chiang, imprisoning him until he agreed to form aunited front with the communists against the Japanese invasion. After two weeks of negotiations, Chiang agreed to unite with the communists and drive the Japanese out of China.
After Chiang negotiated with the Communists, Zhang flew back to Nanjing as a demonstration of good faith.[13]
As soon as Zhang landed in Nanjing, Chiang had him placed under arrest by military police.[14] Zhang wrote Chiang an obsequious letter of apology. Although he never disavowed his role in the Xi'an incident, he admitted that what he had done was a crime, and asked to be punished. He intended the letter to be a private assurance of loyalty to Chiang, but the latter had the letter published so as to discredit Zhang.[15]Li Liejun then presided over a show trial which convicted Zhang of abducting the Generalissimo and attempting to change government policy, sentencing him to ten years in prison.[16] Chiang had him pardoned just a few days later, on January 4, 1937, but with the stipulation that he not be given his civil rights back and that he would remain under protective detention.[17]
During the first few years of Zhang's imprisonment, he was regularly moved from location to location under the close supervision of Chiang Kai-shek. He was soon joined by his first wife, Yu Fengzhi. The couple began living with the family of one of his wardens, Liu Yiguang. Zhang was allowed access to his bank account, but was (according to custom) expected to pay for most of the expenses related to his detention.[18] In 1940 Yu Fengzhi became sick with breast cancer and was granted permission to seek treatment in the United States.[19] Although they remained affectionate in their letters to one another, the couple would never see each other again. In 1964, Yu agreed to divorce Zhang so that he could marry Zhao.[20]
Zhang was eventually taken to Taiwan, where he remained under house arrest until Chiang's 1975 death.[13] Much of his time was spent studyingMing dynasty literature and theManchu language and collecting Chinese fan paintings, calligraphy, and other works of art by illustrious artists (a collection of more than 200 works using his studio's name "Dingyuanzhai" (定遠齋) was auctioned with tremendous success bySotheby's on April 10, 1994).
Zhang studied theNew Testament. In 1964, he formally married Edith Chao, daughter of a senior official, who left her family in her teens to become his companion and later followed him into exile. His first wife, Yu, said she was so moved by Ms. Chao's devotion that she released her husband from his vows. Zhang and his wife, Edith, became devout Christians who also regularly attended Sunday services atthe Methodist chapel inShilin, a Taipei suburb, with Chiang Kai-shek's family. On March 26, 1988, two months after the death of Chiang Kai-shek's sonChiang Ching-kuo, his freedom was officially restored.[21]
In 1991, Zhang made his first trip abroad after being released from house arrest, visiting San Francisco to see friends and family who had moved there.[22] Zhang emigrated toHonolulu,Hawaii in 1995. There he lived with his younger brother Chang Hsueh-sen, who was working as a hotelier.[23]
Although never personally a communist, Zhang is regarded by the Chinese Communist Party and thePeople's Republic of China as a patriotic hero for his role in ending theencirclement campaigns and beginning thewar of resistance against Japan.[4][24][25][26][27] There were numerous pleas for him to visitmainland China, but Zhang declined, citing his political closeness to theKMT and his frail health.[4][28] However, he was named as the honorary President ofNortheastern University in 1993, where he served as President between 1928 and 1937. Zhang was also named as the honorary chairman ofHarbin Institute of Technology in 1993.[4]
In June 2000, Edith Chao died at the age of 88.[28] On October 14 of the following year, Zhang died ofpneumonia at the age of 100.[note 5] atStraub Hospital in Honolulu.[4] Representatives from both China and Taiwan attended his funeral in Honolulu, along withYan Mingfu, the former head of China'sUnited Front Work Department and the son of Zhang's close friend,Yan Baohang [zh].[29][30]
:
Order of Rank and Merit, Fifth Class (1920)[31]
:
Order of Blue Sky and White Sun with Grand Cordon[32]
Order of Wen-Hu, Second Class (1921)[31]Order of Wen-Hu, Third Class (1919)[31]
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