Beginning in the 7th millennium BC, human populations moved into the Chadian basin in great numbers. By the end of the 1st millennium AD, a series of states and empires had risen and fallen in Chad's Sahelian strip, each focused on controlling thetrans-Saharan trade routes that passed through the region. France conquered the territory by 1920 and incorporated it as part ofFrench Equatorial Africa. In 1960, Chad obtained independence under the leadership ofFrançois Tombalbaye. Resentment towards his policies in the Muslim north culminated in the eruption of a long-lastingcivil war in 1965. In 1979the rebels conquered the capital and put an end to the South's hegemony. The rebel commanders then fought amongst themselves untilHissène Habré defeated his rivals. TheChadian–Libyan conflict erupted in 1978 by the Libyan invasion which stopped in 1987 with a French military intervention (Operation Épervier). Hissène Habré was overthrown in turn in 1990 by his generalIdriss Déby. With French support, a modernisation of theChad National Army was initiated in 1991. From 2003, theDarfur crisis in Sudan spilled over the border anddestabilised the nation. Already poor, the nation struggled to accommodate the hundreds of thousands ofSudanese refugees in eastern Chad.
In the7th millennium BC, ecological conditions in the northern half of Chadian territory favoured human settlement, and its population increased considerably. Some of the most importantAfrican archaeological sites are found in Chad, mainly in theBorkou-Ennedi-Tibesti Region; some date to earlier than 2000 BC.[12][13]
Group of Kanem-Bu warriors. TheKanem–Bornu Empire controlled almost all of what is today Chad.
For more than 2,000 years, the Chadian Basin has been inhabited by agricultural andsedentary people. The region became a crossroads of civilisations. The earliest of these was the legendarySao, known from artifacts and oral histories. The Sao fell to theKanem Empire,[14][15] the first and longest-lasting of the empires that developed in Chad'sSahelian strip by the end of the 1st millennium AD. Two other states in the region,Sultanate of Bagirmi andWadai Empire, emerged in the 16th and 17th centuries. The power of Kanem and its successors was based on control of thetrans-Saharan trade routes that passed through the region.[13] These states, at least tacitlyMuslim, never extended their control to the southern grasslands except to raid for slaves.[16] In Kanem, about a third of the population were slaves.[17]
French colonial expansion led to the creation of theTerritoire Militaire des Pays et Protectorats du Tchad in 1900. By 1920, France had secured full control of the colony and incorporated it as part ofFrench Equatorial Africa.[18]French rule in Chad was characterised by an absence of policies to unify the territory and sluggish modernisation compared to other French colonies.[19]
The French primarily viewed the colony as an unimportant source of untrained labour and rawcotton; France introduced large-scale cotton production in 1929. The colonial administration in Chad was critically understaffed and had to rely on the dregs of the French civil service. Only theSara of the south was governed effectively; French presence in the Islamic north and east was nominal. The educational system was affected by this neglect.[13][19]
The French administration's focus on cotton led to the formation of a precarious underclass of poorly-paid rural workers, a decrease in food production and even tofamines in some areas.[20] Tensions between farmers and elites culminated in the 1952Bébalem massacre by colonial authorities.[21][22]
A Chadian soldier fighting forFree France duringWorld War II. The Free French Forces included 15,000 soldiers from Chad[23]
Two years later, Tombalbaye banned opposition parties and established a one-party system. Tombalbaye's autocratic rule and insensitive mismanagement exacerbated inter-ethnic tensions. In 1965, Muslims in the north, led by theNational Liberation Front of Chad (French:Front de libération nationale du Tchad, FRONILAT), began acivil war. Becoming gradually more erratic, Tombalbaye's regime alienated even his southern base of support, notably through the forced introduction ofyondo (ritual scarring) forpublic servants and the 1973 assassination of expatriate dissidentOutel Bono in Paris.[26] Tombalbaye wasoverthrown and killed in 1975,[27] but the insurgency continued. In 1979 the rebel factions led byHissène Habré took the capital, and all central authority in the country collapsed. Armed factions, many from the north's rebellion, contended for power.[28][29]
Chad's first civil war (1979–1987)
The disintegration of Chad caused the collapse of France's position in the country.Libya moved to fill the power vacuum and becameinvolved in Chad's civil war.[30] Libya's adventureended in disaster in 1987; the French-supported president,Hissène Habré, evoked a united response from Chadians of a kind never seen before[31] and forced the Libyan army off Chadian soil.[32]
Dictatorship of Habré (1987–1990)
Habré consolidated his dictatorship through a power system that relied on corruption and violence with thousands of people estimated to have been killed under his rule.[33][34] The president favoured his ownToubou ethnic group and discriminated against his former allies, theZaghawa. His general,Idriss Déby, overthrew him in 1990.[35] Attempts to prosecute Habré led to his placement under house arrest inSenegal in 2005; in 2013, Habré was formally charged with war crimes committed during his rule.[36] In May 2016, he was found guilty of human-rights abuses, including rape, sexual slavery, and ordering the killing of 40,000 people, and sentenced to life in prison.[37]
Déby dynasty and democracy with second Civil War (1990–present)
Despite internal political opposition, coup attempts, and a civil war,Idriss Déby continuously ruled Chad from 1990 until his death in 2021
Déby attempted to reconcile the rebel groups and reintroduced multiparty politics. Chadians approved anew constitution byreferendum, and in 1996, Déby easily won acompetitive presidential election. He won asecond term five years later.[38]Oil exploitation began in Chad in 2003, bringing with it hopes that Chad would, at last, have some chances of peace and prosperity. Instead, internal dissent worsened, and anew civil war broke out. Débyunilaterally modified the constitution to remove the two-term limit on the presidency; this caused an uproar among the civil society and opposition parties.[39]
In 2006 Déby wona third mandate in elections that the opposition boycotted. Ethnic violence in eastern Chad has increased; theUnited Nations High Commissioner for Refugees has warned that agenocide like that inDarfur may yet occur in Chad.[40]In 2006 andin 2008 rebel forces attempted to take the capital by force, but failed on both occasions.[41] An agreement for the restoration of harmony between Chad and Sudan, signed 15 January 2010, marked the end of a five-year war.[42] The fix in relations led to the Chadian rebels from Sudan returning home, the opening of the border between the two countries after seven years of closure, and the deployment of a joint force to secure the border. In May 2013, security forces in Chad foiled a coup against PresidentIdriss Déby that had been in preparation for several months.[43]
Chad is one of the leading partners in aWest African coalition in thefight againstBoko Haram and other Islamist militants.[44] Chad's army announced the death of Déby on 20 April 2021, following anincursion in the northern region by theFACT group, during which the president was killed amid fighting on the front lines.[44][45][46][47] Déby's son,Mahamat Déby, has been named interim president by aTransitional Council of military officers. That transitional council has replaced theConstitution with a new charter, granting Mahamat Déby the powers of the presidency and naming him head of the armed forces.[11] On 23 May 2024, Mahamat Idriss Déby was sworn in asPresident of Chad after the disputed 6 Mayelection.[48]
Chad is divided into three distinct zones, theSudanian savanna in the south, theSahara in the north, and theSahelian belt in the centre
Chad is a large landlocked country spanning north-centralAfrica. It covers an area of 1,284,000 square kilometres (496,000 sq mi),[49] lying between latitudes7° and24°N, and13° and24°E,[50] and is thetwentieth-largest country in the world. Chad is, by size, slightly smaller thanPeru and slightly larger than South Africa.[51][52]
Chad is bounded to the north byLibya, to the east bySudan, to the west byNiger,Nigeria andCameroon, and to the south by theCentral African Republic. The country's capital is 1,060 kilometres (660 mi) from the nearest seaport,Douala, Cameroon.[50][53] Because of this distance from the sea and the country's largelydesert climate, Chad is sometimes referred to as the "Dead Heart of Africa".[54]
The dominant physical structure is a wide basin bounded to the north and east by theEnnedi Plateau andTibesti Mountains, which includeEmi Koussi, a dormantvolcano that reaches 3,414 metres (11,201 ft) above sea level.Lake Chad, after which the country is named (and which in turn takes its name from theKanuri word for "lake"[55]), is the remains of an immense lake that occupied 330,000 square kilometres (130,000 sq mi) of theChad Basin 7,000 years ago.[50] Although in the 21st century it covers only 17,806 square kilometres (6,875 sq mi), and its surface area is subject to heavy seasonal fluctuations,[56] the lake is Africa's second largest wetland.[57]
Each year a tropical weather system known as theintertropical front crosses Chad from south to north, bringing awet season that lasts from May to October in the south, and from June to September in the Sahel.[60] Variations in local rainfall create three major geographical zones. TheSahara lies in the country's northern third. Yearly precipitations throughout this belt are under 50 millimetres (2.0 in); only occasional spontaneous palm groves survive, all of them south of theTropic of Cancer.[53]
The Sahara gives way to aSahelian belt in Chad's centre; precipitation there varies from 300 to 600 mm (11.8 to 23.6 in) per year. In the Sahel, a steppe of thorny bushes (mostlyacacias) gradually gives way to the south toEast Sudanian savanna in Chad'sSudanese zone. Yearly rainfall in this belt is over 900 mm (35.4 in).[53]
Chad's animal and plant life correspond to the three climatic zones. In the Saharan region, the only flora is the date-palm groves of the oasis. Palms andacacia trees grow in the Sahelian region. The southern, or Sudanic, zone consists of broad grasslands or prairies suitable for grazing. As of 2002,[update] there were at least 134 species of mammals, 509 species of birds (354 species of residents and 155 migrants), and over 1,600 species of plants throughout the country.[61][62]
In Chadforest cover is around 3% of the total land area, equivalent to 4,313,000 hectares (ha) of forest in 2020, down from 6,730,000 hectares (ha) in 1990. In 2020, naturally regenerating forest covered 4,293,000 hectares (ha) and planted forest covered 19,800 hectares (ha). For the year 2015, 100% of the forest area was reported to be underpublic ownership.[65][66]
Chad had a 2018Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 6.18/10, ranking it 83rd globally out of 172 countries.[67] Extensivedeforestation has resulted in loss of trees such as acacias, baobab, dates and palm trees. This has also caused loss of natural habitat for wild animals; one of the main reasons for this is also hunting and livestock farming by increasing human settlements. Populations of animals like lions, leopards and rhino have fallen significantly.[68]
Efforts have been made by theFood and Agriculture Organization to improve relations between farmers, agro-pastoralists and pastoralists in the Zakouma National Park (ZNP), Siniaka-Minia, and Aouk reserve in southeastern Chad to promote sustainable development.[69] As part of the national conservation effort, more than 1.2 million trees have been replanted to check the advancement of the desert, which incidentally also helps the local economy by way of financial return from acacia trees, which producegum arabic, and also from fruit trees.[68]
Poaching is a serious problem in the country, particularly of elephants for the profitableivory industry and a threat to lives of rangers even in the national parks such as Zakouma. Elephants are often massacred in herds in and around the parks by organised poaching.[70] The problem is worsened by the fact that the parks are understaffed and that a number of wardens have been murdered by poachers.[71]
Chad's national statistical agency projected the country's 2015 population between 13,630,252 and 13,679,203, with 13,670,084 as its medium projection; based on the medium projection, 3,212,470 people lived in urban areas and 10,457,614 people lived in rural areas.[72] The country's population is young: an estimated 47% is under 15. The birth rate is estimated at 42.35 births per 1,000 people, and the mortality rate at 16.69. The life expectancy is 52 years.[73] The agency assessed the population as at mid 2017 at 15,775,400, of whom just over 1.5 million were in N'Djaména.
Chad's population is unevenly distributed. Density is 0.1/km2 (0.26/sq mi) in the SaharanBorkou-Ennedi-Tibesti Region but 52.4/km2 (136/sq mi) in theLogone Occidental Region. In the capital, it is even higher.[53] About half of the nation's population lives in the southern fifth of its territory, making this the most densely populated region.[74]
Urban life is concentrated in the capital, whose population is mostly engaged in commerce. The other major towns areSarh,Moundou,Abéché andDoba, which are considerably smaller but growing rapidly in population and economic activity.[50] Since 2003, 230,000Sudanese refugees have fled to eastern Chad from war-ridden Darfur. With the 172,600 Chadians displaced by the civil war in the east, this has generated increased tensions among the region's communities.[75][76]
Polygamy is common, with 39% of women living in such unions. This is sanctioned by law, which automatically permits polygamy unless spouses specify that this is unacceptable upon marriage.[77] Although violence against women is prohibited, domestic violence is common.Female genital mutilation is also prohibited, but the practice is widespread and deeply rooted in tradition; 45% of Chadian women undergo the procedure, with the highest rates amongArabs,Hadjarai, and Ouaddaians (90% or more). Lower percentages were reported among theSara (38%) and theToubou (2%). Women lack equal opportunities in education and training, making it difficult for them to compete for the relatively few formal-sector jobs. Although property and inheritance laws based on the French code do not discriminate against women, local leaders adjudicate most inheritance cases in favour of men, according to traditional practice.[78]
In the 2024 Global Hunger Index, Chad ranks 125th out of the 127 countries with sufficient data to calculate 2024 GHI scores, having a score of 36.4.[80]
The peoples of Chad carry significant ancestry fromEastern,Central,Western, andNorthern Africa.[81] Chad has more than 200 distinct ethnic groups,[82] which create diverse social structures. The colonial administration and independent governments have attempted to impose a national society, but for most Chadians the local or regional society remains the most important influence outside the immediate family. Nevertheless, Chad's people may be classified according to the geographical region in which they live.[13][50]
In the south live sedentary people such as theSara, the nation's main ethnic group, whose essentialsocial unit is the lineage. In the Sahel, sedentary peoples live side by side with nomadic ones, such as the Arabs, the country's second major ethnic group. The north is inhabited by nomads, mostlyToubous.[13][50]
Due to the important role played by itinerant Arab traders and settled merchants in local communities,Chadian Arabic has become alingua franca for 12–40% of the population.[13] However, French remains the language of the government and education.[83][84]
Prayer in front of the Fort Lamy mosque, now N'Djamena, 1955
Chad is a religiously diverse country. Various estimates, including fromPew Research in 2010, found that 52–58% of the population was Muslim, while 39–44% were Christian,[10] with 22% being Catholic and a further 17% being Protestant.[85][86] According to a 2012 Pew Research survey, 48% of Muslim Chadians professed to beSunni, 21%Shia, 4%Ahmadi[citation needed] and 23%non-denominational Muslim. Islam is expressed in diverse ways; for example, 55% of Muslim Chadians belong toSufiorders. Its most common expression is theTijaniyah, an order followed by the 35% of Chadian Muslims which incorporates some local African religious elements.[87] In 2020, theARDA estimated the vast majority of Muslims Chadians to be Sunni belonging to the Sufi brotherhood Tijaniyah.[88] A small minority of the country's Muslims (5–10%) hold more fundamentalist practices, which, in some cases, may be associated with Saudi-orientedWahhabism.[88][89]
Catholics represent the largest Christian denomination in the country.[88] Most Protestants, including the Nigeria-based "Winners' Chapel", are affiliated with various evangelical Christian groups. Members of theBaháʼí andJehovah's Witnesses religious communities also are present in the country. Both faiths were introduced after independence in 1960 and therefore are considered to be "new" religions in the country.[90][89]
A small proportion of the population continues to practice indigenous religions.Animism includes a variety of ancestor and place-oriented religions whose expression is highly specific.Christianity arrived in Chad with the French and American missionaries; as with Chadian Islam, itsyncretises aspects of pre-Christian religious beliefs.[13]
Muslims are largely concentrated in northern and eastern Chad, and animists and Christians live primarily in southern Chad andGuéra.[50] Many Muslims also reside in southern Chad but the Christian presence in the north is minimal.[90] The constitution provides for a secular state and guarantees religious freedom; different religious communities generally co-exist without problems.[88][89]
Chad is home to foreign missionaries representing bothChristian and Islamic groups. ItinerantMuslim preachers, primarily fromSudan,Saudi Arabia, andPakistan, also visit. Saudi Arabian funding generally supports social and educational projects and extensive mosque construction.[89]
Education
Educators face considerable challenges due to the nation's dispersed population and a certain degree of reluctance on the part of parents to send their children to school. Although attendance is compulsory, only 68 percent of boys attend primary school, and more than half of the population is illiterate.Higher education is provided at theUniversity of N'Djamena.[50][82] At 33 percent, Chad has one of the lowest literacy rates ofSub-Saharan Africa.[92]
In 2013, theU.S. Department of Labor's Findings on the Worst Forms of Child Labor[93] in Chad reported that school attendance of children aged 5 to 14 was as low as 39%. This can also be related to the issue ofchild labor as the report also stated that 53% of children aged 5 to 14 were working, and that 30% of children aged 7 to 14 combined work and school. A more recent DOLreport listed cattle herding as a major agricultural activity that employed underage children.[94]
This section needs to beupdated. Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information.(January 2024)
Chadian woman voting during the 2016 presidential election
Chad's constitution provides for a strong executive branch headed by a president who dominates the political system. The president has the power to appoint theprime minister and the cabinet, and exercises considerable influence over appointments of judges, generals, provincial officials and heads of Chad's para-statal firms.[95] In cases of grave and immediate threat, the president, in consultation with theNational Assembly, may declare astate of emergency. The president isdirectly elected by popular vote for a five-year term; in 2005, constitutional term limits were removed,[96] allowing a president to remain in power beyond the previous two-term limit.[96] Most of Déby's key advisers are members of the Zaghawa ethnic group, although southern and opposition personalities are represented ingovernment.[82][97]
Chad's legal system is based onFrench civil law and Chadian customary law where the latter does not interfere with public order or constitutional guarantees of equality. Despite the constitution's guarantee of judicial independence, the president names most key judicial officials. The legal system's highest jurisdictions, theSupreme Court and theConstitutional Council, have become fully operational since 2000. The Supreme Court is made up of a chief justice, named by the president, and 15 councillors, appointed for life by the president and the National Assembly. The Constitutional Court is headed by nine judges elected to nine-year terms. It has the power to review legislation, treaties and international agreements prior to their adoption.[82][97]
The National Assembly makes legislation. The body consists of 155 members elected for four-year terms who meet three times per year. The Assembly holds regular sessions twice a year and can hold special sessions when called by the prime minister. Deputies elect a National Assembly president every two years. The president must sign or reject newly passed laws within 15 days. The National Assembly must approve the prime minister's plan of government and may force the prime minister to resign through a majority vote of no confidence. However, if the National Assembly rejects the executive branch's programme twice in one year, the president may disband the Assembly and call for new legislative elections. In practice, the president exercises considerable influence over the National Assembly through his party, thePatriotic Salvation Movement (MPS), which holds a large majority.[82]
Until the legalisation of opposition parties in 1992, Déby's MPS was the sole legal party in Chad.[82] Since then,78 registered political parties have become active.[78] In 2005, opposition parties and human rights organisations supported the boycott of the constitutional referendum that allowed Déby to stand for re-election for a third term[98] amid reports of widespread irregularities in voter registration and government censorship of independent media outlets during the campaign.[99] Correspondents judged the 2006 presidential elections a mere formality, as the opposition deemed the polls a farce and boycotted them.[100]
In southern Chad, bitter conflicts over land are becoming more common. They frequently turn violent. Long-standing community culture is being eroded – and so are the livelihoods of many farmers.[104]
Longtime Chad PresidentIdriss Déby's death on 20 April 2021 resulted in both the nation's National Assembly and government being dissolved and national leadership being replaced with a transitional military council consisting of military officers and led by his sonMahamat Kaka.[105][106][107] The constitution is currently suspended, pending replacement with one drafted by a civilian National Transitional Council, yet to be appointed. The military council has stated that elections will be held at the end of an 18-month transitional period.[108][needs update] In October 2022, Déby extended his rule and was sworn in as transitional president after dissolving the Transitional Military Council. This caused the2022 Chadian protests, which became one of the most violent in Chadian history. The protests however, were suppressed with several opposition parties being banned by the government.[109][110]According to 2023V-Dem Democracy indices Chad is 16th lowest ranked electoral democracy worldwide and 4th lowest rankedelectoral democracy in Africa.[111]
Late President Idriss Déby faced armed opposition from groups who are deeply divided by leadership clashes but were united in their intention to overthrow him.[112] These forcesstormed the capital on 13 April 2006, but were ultimately repelled. Chad's greatest foreign influence is France, which maintains 1,000 soldiers in the country. Déby relied on the French to help repel the rebels, and France gives theChadian army logistical and intelligence support for fear of a complete collapse of regional stability.[113] Nevertheless, Franco-Chadian relations were soured by the granting of oil drilling rights to the AmericanExxon company in 1999.[114] In 2025, the French military handed over its last base in Chad to the Chadian military, ending its presence in the country, which it had since 1960.[115]
There have been numerous rebel groups in Chad throughout the last few decades. In 2007, a peace treaty was signed that integratedUnited Front for Democratic Change soldiers into the Chadian Army.[116] TheMovement for Justice and Democracy in Chad also clashed with government forces in 2003 in an attempt to overthrow PresidentIdriss Déby. In addition, there have been various conflicts withKhartoum'sJanjaweed rebels in eastern Chad, who killed civilians by use ofhelicopter gunships.[117] Presently, theUnion of Resistance Forces (UFR) are a rebel group that continues to battle with the government of Chad. In 2010, the UFR reportedly had a force estimating 6,000 men and 300 vehicles.[118]
The UAE foreignaid was inaugurated in the Chadian city of Amdjarass on 3 August 2023. The UAE's continuous efforts to provide assistance to the Chadian people and support endeavours to providehumanitarian and relief aid through the UAE's humanitarian institutions to Sudanese refugees in Chad.[119][120]
As of 2024 Chad was estimated to have 33,250 active military personnel, including 27,500 in theGround Forces, 350 in theAir Force, and 5,400 in theGeneral Directorate of the Security Services of State Institutions (DGSSIE). There are also 4,500 in theNational Gendarmerie and 7,400 in theNational and Nomadic Guard. The Ground Forces are organised into seven military regions and twelve battalions, including one armored, seven infantry, one artillery, and three logistical. Chad is a member of theG5 Sahel and theMultinational Joint Task Force, which were formed to fight against Islamic insurgent groups in the region,[121] and has contributed troops to theMINUSMA mission inMali before it was dissolved. As of 2023, its last year in the mission, 1,449 Chadian soldiers were deployed there.[122]France has been Chad's main security partner for years, including in training the Chadian military.[122] Chad ended its military cooperation agreement with France in 2024.[123]
The CIA World Factbook estimates the military budget of Chad to be 4.2% of GDP as of 2006.[124] Given the then GDP ($7.095 bln) of the country, military spending was estimated to be about $300 million. This estimate however dropped after the end of theCivil war in Chad (2005–2010) to 2.0%[125] as estimated by theWorld Bank for 2011.
Since 2018 Chad has been divided into23 provinces.[126] The subdivision of Chad in regions came about in 2003 as part of the decentralisation process, when the government abolished the previous14 prefectures; however, in 2018, the government renamed the former regions to become provinces.[126] Each region is headed by a presidentially appointed governor. Prefects administer the provinces'120 departments which are divided into454 sub-prefectures.[127]
The constitution provides for decentralised government to compel local populations to play an active role in their own development.[128] To this end, the constitution declares that each administrative subdivision be governed by elected local assemblies,[129] but no local elections have taken place,[130] and communal elections scheduled for 2005 have been repeatedly postponed.[78]
Chad's currency is theCFA franc. In the 1960s, themining industry of Chad producedsodium carbonate, or natron. There have also been reports ofgold-bearing quartz in theBiltine Prefecture. However, years of civil war have scared away foreign investors; those who left Chad between 1979 and 1982 have only recently begun to regain confidence in the country's future. In 2000, major direct foreign investment in the oil sector began, boosting the country's economic prospects.[51][82]
Women inMao, wherewater is provided by a water tower. Access to clean water is often a problem in Chad.
Uneven inclusion in the global political economy as a site for colonial resource extraction (primarily cotton and crude oil), a global economic system that does not promote nor encourage the development of Chadian industrialisation,[132] and the failure to support local agricultural production has meant that the majority of Chadians live in daily uncertainty and hunger.[133][134] Over 80% of Chad's population relies on subsistence farming and livestock raising for its livelihood.[51] The crops grown and the locations of herds are determined by the local climate. In the southernmost 10% of the territory lies the nation's most fertile cropland, with rich yields ofsorghum andmillet. In the Sahel only the hardier varieties of millet grow, and with much lower yields than in the south. On the other hand, the Sahel is ideal pastureland for large herds of commercial cattle and for goats, sheep, donkeys and horses. The Sahara's scatteredoases support only some dates and legumes.[13] Chad's cities face serious difficulties of municipal infrastructure; only 48% of urban residents have access to potable water and only 2% to basic sanitation.[50][135]
Before the development of the oil industry, cotton dominated industry and the labour market accounted for approximately 80% of export earnings.[136] Cotton remains a primary export, although exact figures are not available. Rehabilitation ofCotontchad, a major cotton company weakened by a decline in world cotton prices, has been financed by France, the Netherlands, the European Union, and theInternational Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD). Theparastatal is now expected to be privatised.[82] Other than cotton,cattle andgum arabic are dominant.
According to theUnited Nations, Chad has been affected by ahumanitarian crisis since at least 2001. As of 2008[update], the country of Chad hosts over 280,000 refugees from theSudan'sDarfur region, over 55,000 from theCentral African Republic, as well as over 170,000internally displaced persons.[137] In February 2008 in the aftermath of theBattle of N'Djamena, UN Under-Secretary-General for Humanitarian AffairsJohn Holmes expressed "extreme concern" that the crisis would have a negative effect on the ability of humanitarians to deliver life-saving assistance to half a million beneficiaries, most of whom – according to him – heavily rely on humanitarian aid for their survival.[138] UN spokespersonMaurizio Giuliano stated toThe Washington Post: "If we do not manage to provide aid at sufficient levels, the humanitarian crisis might become a humanitarian catastrophe".[139] In addition, organisations such asSave the Children have suspended activities due to killings of aid workers.[140]
Chad has made some progress in reducing poverty, there was a decline in the national poverty rate from 55% to 47% between 2003 and 2011. However, the number of poor people increased from 4.7 million (2011) to 6.5 million (2019) in absolute numbers. By 2018, 4.2 out of 10 people still live below the poverty line.[141]
Civil war crippled the development oftransport infrastructure; in 1987, Chad had only 30 kilometres (19 mi) of paved roads. Successive road rehabilitation projects improved the network[142] to 550 kilometres (340 mi) by 2004.[143] Nevertheless, the road network is limited; roads are often unusable for several months of the year. With no railways of its own, Chad depends heavily on Cameroon's rail system for the transport of Chadian exports and imports to and from the seaport ofDouala.[144]
As of 2013[update] Chad had an estimated 59 airports, only 9 of which had paved runways.[145] Aninternational airport serves the capital and provides regular nonstop flights to Paris and several African cities.
Chad's energy sector has had years of mismanagement by the parastatal Chad Water and Electric Society (STEE), which provides power for 15% of the capital's citizens and covers only 1.5% of the national population.[146] Most Chadians burn biomass fuels such as wood and animal manure for power.[147]
ExxonMobil leads a consortium ofChevron andPetronas that has invested $3.7 billion to develop oil reserves estimated at one billion barrels in southern Chad. Oil production began in 2003 with thecompletion of a pipeline (financed in part by theWorld Bank) that links the southern oilfields to terminals on the Atlantic coast of Cameroon. As a condition of its assistance, the World Bank insisted that 80% of oil revenues be spent on development projects. In January 2006 the World Bank suspended its loan programme when the Chadian government passed laws reducing this amount.[82][130] On 14 July 2006, the World Bank and Chad signed a memorandum of understanding under which the Government of Chad commits 70% of its spending to priority poverty reduction programmes.[148]
Thetelecommunication system is basic and expensive, with fixed telephone services provided by the state telephone companySotelTchad. In 2000, there were only 14 fixed telephone lines per 10,000 inhabitants in the country, one of the lowest telephone densities in the world.[146]
Gateway Communications, a pan-African wholesale connectivity and telecommunications provider also has a presence in Chad.[149] In September 2013, Chad's Ministry for Posts and Information & Communication Technologies (PNTIC) announced that the country will be seeking a partner forfiber optic technology.[needs update]
Chad is ranked last in the World Economic Forum's Network Readiness Index (NRI) – an indicator for determining the development level of a country's information and communication technologies.[150] In September 2010 the mobile phone penetration rate was estimated at 24.3% over a population estimate of 10.7 million.[151]
Culture
Because of its great variety of peoples and languages, Chad possesses a rich cultural heritage. The Chadian government has actively promoted Chadian culture and national traditions by opening theChad National Museum and theChad Cultural Centre.[50] Sixnational holidays are observed throughout the year, and movable holidays include the Christian holiday ofEaster Monday and the Muslim holidays ofEid al-Fitr,Eid al-Adha, andMawlid.[146]
Millet is the staple food ofChadian cuisine. It is used to make balls of paste that are dipped in sauces. In the north this dish is known asalysh; in the south, asbiya. Fish is popular, which is generally prepared and sold either assalanga (sun-dried and lightly smokedAlestes andHydrocynus) or asbanda (smoked large fish).[152]Carcaje is a popular sweet red tea extracted from hibiscus leaves. Alcoholic beverages, though absent in the north, are popular in the south, where people drinkmillet beer, known asbilli-billi when brewed from red millet, and ascoshate when fromwhite millet.[153]
Themusic of Chad includes a number of instruments such as thekinde, a type of bow harp; thekakaki, a long tin horn; and thehu hu, a stringed instrument that usescalabashes as loudspeakers. Other instruments and their combinations are more linked to specific ethnic groups: the Sara prefer whistles,balafons, harps andkodjo drums; and theKanembu combine the sounds of drums with those of flute-like instruments.[153]
The music groupChari Jazz formed in 1964 and initiated Chad's modern music scene. Later, more renowned groups such as African Melody and International Challal attempted to mix modernity and tradition. Popular groups such as Tibesti have clung faster to their heritage by drawing onsai, a traditional style of music from southern Chad. The people of Chad have customarily disdained modern music. However, in 1995 greater interest has developed and fostered the distribution of CDs and audio cassettes featuring Chadian artists. Piracy and a lack of legal protections for artists' rights remain problems to further development of the Chadian music industry.[153][154]
Literature
Fried or grilled grasshoppers
As in other Sahelian countries,literature in Chad has seen an economic, political and spiritual drought that has affected its best known writers. Chadian authors have been forced to write from exile or expatriate status and have generated literature dominated by themes of political oppression and historical discourse. Since 1962, 20 Chadian authors have written some 60 works of fiction. Among the most internationally renowned writers areJoseph Brahim Seïd,Baba Moustapha,Antoine Bangui andKoulsy Lamko. In 2003 Chad's sole literary critic,Ahmat Taboye, published hisAnthologie de la littérature tchadienne to further knowledge of Chad's literature.[153][155][156]
Chad's television audience is limited to N'Djamena. The only television station is the state-owned Télé Tchad. Radio has a far greater reach, with 13 private radio stations.[157] Newspapers are limited in quantity and distribution, and circulation figures are small due to transportation costs, low literacy rates, and poverty.[99][147][158] While the constitution defends liberty of expression, the government has regularly restricted this right, and at the end of 2006 began to enact a system of priorcensorship on the media.[159]
Football is Chad's most popularsport.[168] The country'snational team is closely followed during international competitions[153] and Chadian footballers have played for French teams.Basketball andfreestyle wrestling are widely practiced, the latter in a form in which the wrestlers put on traditional animal hides and cover themselves with dust.[153]
^Macedo, Stephen (2006);Universal Jurisdiction: National Courts and the Prosecution of Serious Crimes Under International Law. University of Pennsylvania Press.ISBN0-8122-1950-3, pp. 133–134
^"Global Hunger Index Scores by 2024 GHI Rank".Global Hunger Index (GHI) – peer-reviewed annual publication designed to comprehensively measure and track hunger at the global, regional, and country levels. Retrieved13 December 2024.
^abcd"ChadArchived 23 December 2019 at theWayback Machine".International Religious Freedom Report 2006. 15 September 2006. Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor, U.S. Department of State.
^(in French) "TchadArchived 15 May 2007 at theWayback Machine".L'évaluation de l'éducation pour tous à l'an 2000: Rapport des pays.UNESCO, Education for All.
^Boyd-Buggs, Debra & Joyce Hope Scott (1999);Camel Tracks: Critical Perspectives on Sahelian Literatures. Lawrenceville: Africa World Press.ISBN0-86543-757-2, pp. 12, 132, 135
Botha, D.J.J. (December 1992); "S.H. Frankel: Reminiscences of an Economist",The South African Journal of Economics60 (4): 246–255.
Boyd-Buggs, Debra & Joyce Hope Scott (1999);Camel Tracks: Critical Perspectives on Sahelian Literatures. Lawrenceville: Africa World Press.ISBN0-86543-757-2
"ChadArchived 28 December 2019 at theWayback Machine". Country Reports on Human Rights Practices 2004, 28 February 2005. Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor, U.S. Department of State.
"Chad". International Monetary Fund.Archived from the original on 4 July 2014. Retrieved18 April 2012.
"ChadArchived 23 December 2019 at theWayback Machine".International Religious Freedom Report 2006. 15 September 2006. Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor, U.S. Department of State.
Decalo, Samuel (1987).Historical Dictionary of Chad (2 ed.). Metuchen: The Scarecrow Press.ISBN978-0-8108-1937-5.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: publisher location (link)
East, Roger & Richard J. Thomas (2003);Profiles of People in Power: The World's Government Leaders. Routledge.ISBN1-85743-126-X
Dinar, Ariel (1995);Restoring and Protecting the World's Lakes and Reservoirs. World Bank Publications.ISBN0-8213-3321-6
(in French)Lettre d'information (PDF).Délégation de la Commission Européenne au Tchad. N. 3. September 2004.
Macedo, Stephen (2006);Universal Jurisdiction: National Courts and the Prosecution of Serious Crimes Under International Law. University of Pennsylvania Press.ISBN0-8122-1950-3
(in French) "TchadArchived 15 May 2007 at theWayback Machine".L'évaluation de l'éducation pour tous à l'an 2000: Rapport des pays.UNESCO, Education for All.
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