Images of a few members of the family Cervidae (clockwise from top left): thered deer (Cervus elaphus),sika deer (Cervus nippon),barasingha (Rucervus duvaucelii),caribou (Rangifer tarandus) andwhite-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus)
Themusk deer (Moschidae) of Asia andchevrotains (Tragulidae) of tropical African and Asian forests are separate families that are also in the ruminant cladeRuminantia; they are not especially closely related to Cervidae.
Deer appear in art fromPaleolithic cave paintings onwards, and they haveplayed a role in mythology, religion, and literature throughout history, as well as inheraldry, such as red deer that appear in thecoat of arms of Åland.[2] Their economic importance includes the use of their meat asvenison, their skins as soft, strongbuckskin, and their antlers as handles for knives.Deer hunting has been a popular activity since the Middle Ages and remains a resource for many families today.
The worddeer was originally broad in meaning, becoming more specific with time.Old Englishdēor andMiddle Englishder meant a wild animal of any kind. Cognates of Old Englishdēor in other deadGermanic languages have the general sense ofanimal, such asOld High Germantior,Old Norsedjur ordȳr,Gothicdius,Old Saxondier, andOld Frisiandiar.[3] This general sense gave way to the modern English sense by the end of the Middle English period, around 1500. All modern Germanic languages save English and Scots retain the more general sense: for example,Dutch/Frisiandier,GermanTier, andNorwegiandyr mean'animal'.[4]
For many types of deer in modern English usage, the male is abuck and the female adoe, but the terms vary with dialect, and according to the size of the species. The malered deer is astag, while for other large species the male is abull, the female acow, as in cattle. In older usage, the male of any species is ahart, especially if over five years old, and the female is ahind, especially if three or more years old.[5] The young of small species is afawn and of large species acalf; a very small young may be akid. A castrated male is ahavier.[6][7] A group of any species is aherd. Theadjective of relation iscervine; like the family nameCervidae, this is fromLatin:cervus, meaning'stag' or'deer'.
Deer live in a variety ofbiomes, ranging fromtundra to thetropical rainforest. While often associated with forests, many deer areecotone species that live in transitional areas between forests and thickets (for cover) and prairie and savanna (open space). The majority of large deer species inhabit temperate mixed deciduous forest, mountain mixed coniferous forest, tropical seasonal/dry forest, and savanna habitats around the world. Clearing open areas within forests to some extent may actually benefit deer populations by exposing theunderstory and allowing the types of grasses, weeds, and herbs to grow that deer like to eat. Access to adjacent croplands may also benefit deer. Adequate forest or brush cover must still be provided for populations to grow and thrive.
The highest concentration of large deer species in temperate North America lies in theCanadian Rocky Mountain andColumbia Mountain regions between Alberta and British Columbia where all five North American deer species (white-tailed deer,mule deer,caribou,elk, andmoose) can be found. This region has several clusters of national parks includingMount Revelstoke National Park,Glacier National Park (Canada),Yoho National Park, andKootenay National Park on the British Columbia side, andBanff National Park,Jasper National Park, andGlacier National Park (U.S.) on the Alberta and Montana sides. Mountain slope habitats vary from moist coniferous/mixed forested habitats to dry subalpine/pine forests with alpine meadows higher up. The foothills and river valleys between the mountain ranges provide a mosaic of cropland and deciduous parklands. The rare woodland caribou have the most restricted range living at higher altitudes in the subalpine meadows andalpine tundra areas of some of the mountain ranges. Elk and mule deer both migrate between the alpine meadows and lower coniferous forests and tend to be most common in this region. Elk also inhabit river valley bottomlands, which they share with White-tailed deer. The White-tailed deer have recently expanded their range within the foothills and river valley bottoms of the Canadian Rockies owing to conversion of land to cropland and the clearing of coniferous forests allowing more deciduous vegetation to grow up the mountain slopes. They also live in the aspen parklands north of Calgary and Edmonton, where they share habitat with the moose. The adjacentGreat Plains grassland habitats are left to herds of elk,American bison, andpronghorn.
TheEurasian Continent (including the Indian Subcontinent) boasts the most species of deer in the world, with most species being found in Asia. Europe, in comparison, has lower diversity in plant and animal species. Many national parks and protected reserves in Europe have populations of red deer,roe deer, and fallow deer. These species have long been associated with the continent of Europe, but also inhabitAsia Minor, theCaucasus Mountains, and NorthwesternIran. "European" fallow deer historically lived over much of Europe during the Ice Ages, but afterwards became restricted primarily to the Anatolian Peninsula, in present-day Turkey.
Present-day fallow deer populations in Europe are a result of historic man-made introductions of this species, first to the Mediterranean regions of Europe, then eventually to the rest of Europe. They were initially park animals that later escaped and reestablished themselves in the wild. Historically, Europe's deer species shared their deciduous forest habitat with other herbivores, such as the extincttarpan (forest horse), extinctaurochs (forest ox), and the endangeredwisent (European bison). Good places to see deer in Europe include theScottish Highlands, theAustrianAlps, thewetlands betweenAustria,Hungary, and theCzech Republic, and some National Parks, includingDoñana National Park inSpain, theVeluwe in theNetherlands, theArdennes inBelgium, andBiałowieża National Park inPoland.Spain,Eastern Europe, and theCaucasus Mountains have forest areas that are not only home to sizable deer populations but also other animals that were once abundant such as the wisent,Eurasian lynx,Iberian lynx,wolves, andbrown bears.
The highest concentration of large deer species in temperate Asia occurs in the mixed deciduous forests, mountain coniferous forests, and taiga bordering North Korea, Manchuria (Northeastern China), and the Ussuri Region (Russia). These are among some of the richest deciduous and coniferous forests in the world where one can findSiberian roe deer,sika deer, elk, and moose. Asian caribou occupy the northern fringes of this region along the Sino-Russian border.
Deer such as the sika deer,Thorold's deer,Central Asian red deer, and elk have historically been farmed for their antlers byHan Chinese,Turkic peoples,Tungusic peoples,Mongolians, andKoreans. Like theSami people of Finland and Scandinavia, the Tungusic peoples, Mongolians, and Turkic peoples of Southern Siberia, Northern Mongolia, and the Ussuri Region have also taken to raising semi-domesticated herds of Asian caribou.
The highest concentration of large deer species in the tropics occurs in Southern Asia in India's Indo-Gangetic Plain Region andNepal's Terai Region. These fertile plains consist of tropical seasonal moist deciduous, dry deciduous forests, and both dry and wet savannas that are home tochital,hog deer,barasingha, Indiansambar, andIndian muntjac. Grazing species such as the endangered barasingha and very common chital are gregarious and live in large herds. Indian sambar can be gregarious but are usually solitary or live in smaller herds. Hog deer are solitary and have lower densities than Indian muntjac. Deer can be seen in several national parks in India, Nepal, and Sri Lanka of whichKanha National Park,Dudhwa National Park, andChitwan National Park are most famous. Sri Lanka'sWilpattu National Park andYala National Park have large herds of Indian sambar and chital. The Indian sambar are more gregarious in Sri Lanka than other parts of their range and tend to form larger herds than elsewhere.
The Chao Praya River Valley of Thailand was once primarily tropical seasonal moist deciduous forest and wet savanna that hosted populations of hog deer, the now-extinctSchomburgk's deer,Eld's deer, Indian sambar, and Indian muntjac. Both the hog deer and Eld's deer are rare, whereas Indian sambar and Indian muntjac thrive in protected national parks, such asKhao Yai. Many of these South Asian and Southeast Asian deer species also share their habitat with otherherbivores, such asAsian elephants, the various Asian rhinoceros species, various antelope species (such asnilgai,four-horned antelope,blackbuck, andIndian gazelle in India), and wild oxen (such aswild Asian water buffalo,gaur,banteng, andkouprey). One way that different herbivores can survive together in a given area is for each species to have different food preferences, although there may be some overlap.
As a result ofacclimatisation society releases in the 19th century, Australia has sixintroduced species of deer that have established sustainable wild populations. They are fallow deer, red deer, sambar, hog deer,rusa, and chital. Red deer were introduced into New Zealand in 1851 from English and Scottish stock. Many have been domesticated indeer farms since the late 1960s and are common farm animals there now. Seven other species of deer were introduced into New Zealand but none are as widespread as red deer.[8]
Deer constitute the second most diverse family of artiodactyla after bovids.[9] Though of a similar build, deer are strongly distinguished fromantelopes by theirantlers, which are temporary and regularly regrown unlike the permanenthorns of bovids.[10] Characteristics typical of deer include long, powerful legs, a diminutive tail and long ears.[11] Deer exhibit a broad variation in physical proportions. Thelargest extant deer is themoose, which is nearly 2.6 metres (8 ft 6 in) tall and weighs up to 800 kilograms (1,800 lb).[12][13] The elk stands 1.4–2 metres (4 ft 7 in – 6 ft 7 in) at the shoulder and weighs 240–450 kilograms (530–990 lb).[14] The northern pudu is the smallest deer in the world; it reaches merely 32–35 centimetres (12+1⁄2–14 in) at the shoulder and weighs3.3–6 kilograms (7+1⁄4–13+1⁄4 lb). The southern pudu is only slightly taller and heavier.[15]Sexual dimorphism is quite pronounced – in most species males tend to be larger than females,[16] and, except for the reindeer, only males have antlers.[17]
Coat colour generally varies between red and brown,[18] though it can be as dark as chocolate brown in the tufted deer[19] or have a grayish tinge as in elk.[14] Different species of brocket deer vary from gray to reddish brown in coat colour.[20] Several species such as the chital,[21] the fallow deer[22] and the sika deer[23] feature white spots on a brown coat. Coat of reindeer shows notable geographical variation.[24] Deer undergo twomoults in a year;[18][25] for instance, in red deer the red, thin-haired summer coat is gradually replaced by the dense, greyish brown winter coat in autumn, which in turn gives way to the summer coat in the following spring.[26] Moulting is affected by thephotoperiod.[27]
Deer are also excellent jumpers and swimmers. Deer areruminants, or cud-chewers, and have a four-chambered stomach. Some deer, such as those on the island ofRùm,[28] do consume meat when it is available.[29]
Nearly all deer have a facial gland in front of each eye. The gland contains a strongly scentedpheromone, used tomark its home range. Bucks of a wide range of species open these glands wide when angry or excited. All deer have aliver without agallbladder. Deer also have atapetum lucidum, which gives them sufficiently goodnight vision.
All male deer haveantlers, with the exception of thewater deer, in which males have long tusk-like canines that reach below the lower jaw.[30] Females generally lack antlers, though female reindeer bear antlers smaller and less branched than those of the males.[31] Occasionally females in other species may develop antlers, especially in telemetacarpal deer such as European roe deer, red deer, white-tailed deer and mule deer and less often in plesiometacarpal deer. A study of antlered female white-tailed deer noted that antlers tend to be small and malformed, and are shed frequently around the time of parturition.[32]
Antler phylogenetics
The fallow deer and the various subspecies of the reindeer have the largest as well as the heaviest antlers, both in absolute terms as well as in proportion to body mass (an average of eight grams per kilogram of body mass);[31][33] the tufted deer, on the other hand, has the smallest antlers of all deer, while the pudú has the lightest antlers with respect to body mass (0.6 g per kilogram of body mass).[31] The structure of antlers show considerable variation; while fallow deer and elk antlers are palmate (with a broad central portion), white-tailed deer antlers include a series of tines sprouting upward from a forward-curving main beam, and those of the pudú are mere spikes.[15] Antler development begins from the pedicel, a bony structure that appears on the top of the skull by the time the animal is a year old. The pedicel gives rise to a spiky antler the following year, that is replaced by a branched antler in the third year. This process of losing a set of antlers to develop a larger and more branched set continues for the rest of the life.[31] The antlers emerge as soft tissues (known asvelvet antlers) and progressively harden into bony structures (known as hard antlers), followingmineralisation and blockage ofblood vessels in the tissue, from the tip to the base.[34]
Antlers might be one of the most exaggerated malesecondary sexual characteristics,[35] and are intended primarily for reproductive success throughsexual selection and for combat. The tines (forks) on the antlers create grooves that allow another male's antlers to lock into place. This allows the males to wrestle without risking injury to the face.[36] Antlers are correlated to an individual's position in the social hierarchy and its behaviour. For instance, the heavier the antlers, the higher the individual's status in the social hierarchy, and the greater the delay in shedding the antlers;[31] males with larger antlers tend to be more aggressive and dominant over others.[37] Antlers can be anhonest signal of genetic quality; males with larger antlers relative to body size tend to have increased resistance topathogens[38] and higher reproductive capacity.[39]
Homology of tines, that is, the branching structure of antlers among species, have been discussed before the 1900s.[41][42][43] Recently, a new method to describe the branching structure of antlers and determining homology of tines was developed.[44]
Teeth
An example of a deer's mandible and teeth
Most deer bear 32 teeth; the correspondingdental formula is:0.0.3.33.1.3.3. The elk and the reindeer may be exceptions, as they may retain their upper canines and thus have 34 teeth (dental formula:0.1.3.33.1.3.3).[45] The Chinese water deer, tufted deer, andmuntjac have enlarged uppercanine teeth forming sharp tusks, while other species often lack upper canines altogether. The cheek teeth of deer have crescent ridges of enamel, which enable them to grind a wide variety of vegetation.[46] The teeth of deer are adapted to feeding on vegetation, and like other ruminants, they lack upperincisors, instead having a tough pad at the front of their upper jaw.
Deer arebrowsers, and feed primarily on foliage ofgrasses,sedges,forbs,shrubs andtrees, secondarily onlichens in northern latitudes during winter.[47] They have small, unspecialized stomachs byruminant standards, and high nutrition requirements. Rather than eating and digesting vast quantities of low-grade fibrous food as, for example,sheep andcattle do, deer select easily digestible shoots, young leaves, fresh grasses, soft twigs, fruit,fungi, andlichens. The low-fibered food, after minimal fermentation and shredding, passes rapidly through the alimentary canal. The deer require a large amount of minerals such ascalcium and phosphate in order to support antler growth, and this further necessitates a nutrient-rich diet. There are some reports of deer engaging in carnivorous activity, such as eating deadalewives along lakeshores[48] or depredating the nests ofnorthern bobwhites.[49]
Nearly all cervids are so-calleduniparental species: the young, known in most species as fawns, are only cared for by the mother, most often called a doe. A doe generally has one or two fawns at a time (triplets, while not unknown, are uncommon). Mating season typically begins in later August and lasts until December. Some species mate until early March. Thegestation period is anywhere up to ten months for the European roe deer. Most fawns are born with their fur covered with white spots, though in many species they lose these spots by the end of their first winter. In the first twenty minutes of a fawn's life, the fawn begins to take its first steps. Its mother licks it clean until it is almost free of scent, sopredators will not find it. Its mother leaves often to graze, and the fawn does not like to be left behind. Sometimes its mother must gently push it down with her foot.[50][better source needed] The fawn stays hidden in the grass for one week until it is strong enough to walk with its mother. The fawn and its mother stay together for about one year. A male usually leaves and never sees his mother again, but females sometimes come back with their own fawns and form small herds.
Disease
In some areas of the UK, deer (especiallyfallow deer due to theirgregarious behaviour) have been implicated as a possible reservoir for transmission ofbovine tuberculosis,[51][52] a disease which in the UK in 2005 cost £90 million in attempts to eradicate.[53] In New Zealand, deer are thought to be important as vectors picking upM. bovis in areas where brushtail possumsTrichosurus vulpecula are infected, and transferring it to previously uninfected possums when their carcasses are scavenged elsewhere.[54] The white-tailed deerOdocoileus virginianus has been confirmed as the sole maintenance host in the Michigan outbreak of bovine tuberculosis which remains a significant barrier to the US nationwide eradication of the disease in livestock.[55] Moose and deer can carryrabies.[56]
Docile moose may suffer frombrain worm, ahelminth which drills holes through the brain in its search for a suitable place to lay its eggs. A government biologist states that "They move around looking for the right spot and never really find it." Deer appear to be immune to this parasite; it passes through the digestive system and is excreted in the feces. The parasite is not screened by the moose intestine, and passes into the brain where damage is done that is externally apparent, both in behaviour and in gait.[56]
Deer, elk and moose in North America may suffer fromchronic wasting disease, which was identified at aColorado laboratory in the 1960s and is believed to be a prion disease. Out of an abundance of caution hunters are advised to avoid contact withspecified risk material (SRM) such as the brain, spinal column or lymph nodes. Deboning the meat when butchering and sanitizing the knives and other tools used to butcher are amongst other government recommendations.[57]
Evolution
Deer are believed to have evolved from antlerless,tusked ancestors that resembled modernduikers and diminutive deer in the earlyEocene, and gradually developed into the first antlered cervoids (thesuperfamily of cervids and related extinct families) in theMiocene. Eventually, with the development of antlers, the tusks as well as the upperincisors disappeared. Thus, evolution of deer took nearly 30 million years. BiologistValerius Geist suggests evolution to have occurred in stages. There are not many prominent fossils to trace this evolution, but only fragments of skeletons and antlers that might be easily confused with false antlers of non-cervid species.[15][58]
Eocene
Theruminants, ancestors of the Cervidae, are believed to have evolved fromDiacodexis, the earliest known artiodactyl (even-toed ungulate), 50–55 Mya in the Eocene.[59]Diacodexis, nearly the size of arabbit, featured thetalus bone characteristic of all moderneven-toed ungulates. This ancestor and its relatives occurred throughout North America and Eurasia, but were on the decline by at least 46 Mya.[59][60] Analysis of a nearly complete skeleton ofDiacodexis discovered in 1982 gave rise to speculation that this ancestor could be closer to the non-ruminants than the ruminants.[61]Andromeryx is another prominent prehistoric ruminant, but appears to be closer to thetragulids.[62]
The formation of theHimalayas and theAlps brought about significant geographic changes. This was the chief reason behind the extensive diversification of deer-like forms and the emergence of cervids from theOligocene to the earlyPliocene.[63] The latter half of the Oligocene (28–34 Mya) saw the appearance of the EuropeanEumeryx and the North AmericanLeptomeryx. The latter resembled modern-day bovids and cervids in dental morphology (for instance, it hadbrachyodont molars), while the former was moreadvanced.[64] Other deer-like forms included the North AmericanBlastomeryx and the EuropeanDremotherium; these sabre-toothed animals are believed to have been the direct ancestors of all modern antlered deer, though they themselves lacked antlers.[65] Another contemporaneous form was the four-hornedprotoceratidProtoceras, that was replaced bySyndyoceras in the Miocene; these animals were unique in having a horn on the nose.[58] Late Eocene fossils dated approximately 35 million years ago, which were found in North America, show thatSyndyoceras had bony skull outgrowths that resembled non-deciduous antlers.[66]
Miocene
Fossil evidence suggests that the earliest members of the superfamily Cervoidea appeared in Eurasia in the Miocene.Dicrocerus,Euprox andHeteroprox were probably the first antlered cervids.[67]Dicrocerus featured single-forked antlers that were shed regularly.[68]Stephanocemas had more developed and diffuse ("crowned") antlers.[69]Procervulus (Palaeomerycidae) also had antlers that were not shed.[70] Contemporary forms such as themerycodontines eventually gave rise to the modern pronghorn.[71]
The Cervinae emerged as the first group of extant cervids around 7–9 Mya, during the late Miocene in central Asia. The tribe Muntiacini made its appearance as†Muntiacus leilaoensis around 7–8 Mya;[72] The early muntjacs varied in size–as small as hares or as large as fallow deer. They had tusks for fighting and antlers for defence.[15] Capreolinae followed soon after; Alceini appeared 6.4–8.4 Mya.[73] Around this period, theTethys Ocean disappeared to give way to vast stretches of grassland; these provided the deer with abundant protein-rich vegetation that led to the development of ornamental antlers and allowed populations to flourish and colonise areas.[15][63] As antlers had become pronounced, the canines were either lost or became poorly represented (as in elk), probably because diet was no longerbrowse-dominated and antlers were better display organs. In muntjac and tufted deer, the antlers as well as the canines are small. The tragulids have long canines to this day.[60]
With the onset of thePliocene, the global climate became cooler. A fall in the sea-level led to massive glaciation; consequently, grasslands abounded in nutritious forage. Thus a new spurt in deer populations ensued.[15][63] The oldest member of Cervini,†Cervocerus novorossiae, appeared around the transition from Miocene to Pliocene (4.2–6 Mya) in Eurasia;[74] cervine fossils from early Pliocene to as late as thePleistocene have been excavated in China[75] and the Himalayas.[76] WhileCervus andDama appeared nearly 3 Mya,Axis emerged during the late Pliocene–Pleistocene. The tribes Capreolini and Rangiferini appeared around 4–7 Mya.[73]
Around 5 Mya, the rangiferina†Bretzia and†Eocoileus were the first cervids to reach North America.[73] This implies the Bering Strait could be crossed during the late Miocene–Pliocene; this appears highly probable as thecamelids migrated into Asia from North America around the same time.[77] Deer invaded South America in the late Pliocene (2.5–3 Mya) as part of theGreat American Interchange, thanks to the recently formedIsthmus of Panama, and emerged successful due to the small number of competing ruminants in the continent.[78]
Pleistocene
Large deer with impressive antlers evolved during the early Pleistocene, probably as a result of abundant resources to drive evolution.[15] The early Pleistocene cervid†Eucladoceros was comparable in size to the modern elk.[79]†Megaloceros (Pliocene–Pleistocene) featured theIrish elk (M. giganteus), one of thelargest known cervids. The Irish elk reached2 metres (6+1⁄2 ft) at the shoulder and had heavy antlers that spanned 3.6 metres (11 ft 10 in) from tip to tip.[80] These large animals were traditionally thought to have faced extinction due to conflict betweensexual selection for large antlers and body andnatural selection for a smaller form,[81] but a combination of anthropogenic and climatic pressures is now thought to be the most likely culprit.[82] Meanwhile, the moose and reindeer radiated into North America from Siberia.[83]
Other attempts at the classification of deer have been based on morphological andgenetic differences.[58] The Anglo-Irish naturalistVictor Brooke suggested in 1878 that deer could be bifurcated into two classes on the according to the features of the second and fifthmetacarpal bones of their forelimbs: Plesiometacarpalia (most Old World deer) and Telemetacarpalia (most New World deer). He treated themusk deer as a cervid, placing it under Telemetacarpalia. While the telemetacarpal deer showed only those elements located far from the joint, the plesiometacarpal deer retained the elements closer to the joint as well.[85] Differentiation on the basis ofdiploid number ofchromosomes in the late 20th century has been flawed by several inconsistencies.[58]
In 1987, the zoologistsColin Groves andPeter Grubb identified three subfamilies: Cervinae, Hydropotinae and Odocoileinae; they noted that the hydropotines lack antlers, and the other two subfamilies differ in their skeletal morphology.[86] They reverted from this classification in 2000.[87]
Molecular phylogenetic analyses since the latter half of the 2000s all show thathydropotes is a sister taxon ofCapreolus, and “Hydropotinae” became outdated subfamily.[88][89][90][91][92]
A 2006phylogenetic study of the internal relationships in Cervidae by Clément Gilbert and colleagues divided the family into two major clades: Capreolinae (telemetacarpal or New World deer) and Cervinae (plesiometacarpal or Old World deer). Studies in the late 20th century suggested a similar bifurcation in the family. This as well as previous studies supportmonophyly in Cervinae, while Capreolinae appearsparaphyletic. The 2006 study identified two lineages in Cervinae, Cervini (comprising the generaAxis,Cervus,Dama andRucervus) and Muntiacini (Muntiacus andElaphodus). Capreolinae featured three lineages, Alceini (Alces species), Capreolini (Capreolus and the subfamily Hydropotinae) and Rangiferini (Blastocerus,Hippocamelus,Mazama,Odocoileus,Pudu andRangifer species). The following cladogram is based on the 2006 study.[73]
Deer were an important source of food for early hominids. In China,Homo erectus fed upon thesika deer, while the red deer was hunted in Germany. In theUpper Palaeolithic, the reindeer was the staple food forCro-Magnon people,[94] while thecave paintings atLascaux in southwestern France include some 90 images of stags.[95] InChina, deer continued to be a main source of food for millennia even after people began farming, and it is possible that sika and other deer benefited from the frequently abandoned field sites.[96][97]
Deer had a central role in the ancient art, culture and mythology of various peoples including theHittites, theancient Egyptians, theCelts, theancient Greeks, and certain East Asian cultures. For instance, theStag Hunt Mosaic of ancientPella, under theKingdom of Macedonia (4th century BC), possibly depictsAlexander the Great hunting a deer withHephaestion.[98] In JapaneseShintoism, the sika deer is believed to be a messenger to the gods.In China, deer are associated with great medicinal significance;deer penis is thought by some in China to haveaphrodisiac properties.[99] Spotted deer are believed in China to accompany the god of longevity. Deer was the principal sacrificial animal for the Huichal Indians of Mexico. In medieval Europe, deer appeared in hunting scenes and coats-of-arms. Deer are depicted in many materials by various pre-Hispanic civilizations in the Andes.[94][100]
The common male given nameOscar is taken from theIrish Language, where it is derived from two elements: the first,os, means "deer"; the second element,cara, means "friend". The name is borne by a famous hero ofIrish mythology—Oscar, grandson ofFionn Mac Cumhail. The name was popularised in the 18th century byJames Macpherson, creator of 'Ossianic poetry'.
Deer have been an integral part of fables and other literary works since the inception of writing. Stags were used as symbols in the latter Sumerian writings. For instance, the boat of Sumerian god Enki is named theStag of Azbu. There are several mentions of the animal in theRigveda as well as theBible. In the Indian epicRamayana,Sita is lured by a golden deer whichRama tries to catch. In the absence of both Rama andLakshman,Ravana kidnaps Sita. Many of the allegoricalAesop's fables, such as "The Stag at the Pool", "The One-Eyed Doe" and "The Stag and a Lion", personify deer to give moral lessons. For instance, "The Sick Stag" gives the message that uncaring friends can do more harm than good.[94] TheYaqui deer song accompanies the deer dance which is performed by a pascola [from the Spanish 'pascua', Easter] dancer (also known as a deer dancer). Pascolas would perform at religious and social functions many times of the year, especially during Lent and Easter.[94][101]
Deer of various types appear frequently in Europeanheraldry. In the British armory, the term "stag" is typically used to refer to antlered male red deer, while "buck" indicates an antlered male fallow deer. Stags and bucks appear in a number ofattitudes, referred to as "lodged" when the deer is lying down, "trippant" when it has one leg raised, "courant" when it is running, "springing" when in the act of leaping, "statant" when it is standing with all hooves on the ground and looking ahead, and "at gaze" when otherwise statant but looking at the viewer. Stags' heads are also frequently used; these are typically portrayed without an attached neck and as facing the viewer, in which case they are termed "caboshed".[104]
Other types of deer used in heraldry include the hind, portrayed much like the stag or buck but without antlers, as well as the reindeer and winged stags. Winged stags are used assupporters in the arms of thede Carteret family. The sea-stag, having the antlers, head, forelegs and upper body of a stag and the tail of amermaid, is often found in German heraldry.[104]
Deer have long had economic significance to humans. Deer meat, known asvenison, is highly nutritious.[124][125] Due to the inherently wild nature and diet of deer, venison is most often obtained through deer hunting. In the United States, it is produced in small amounts compared tobeef, but still represents a significant trade. Deer hunting is a popular activity in the U.S. that can provide the hunter's family with high quality meat and generates revenue for states and the federal government from the sales oflicenses, permits and tags. The 2006 survey by theU.S. Fish and Wildlife Service estimates that license sales generate approximately $700 million annually. This revenue generally goes to support conservation efforts in the states where the licenses are purchased. Overall, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service estimates that big game hunting for deer and elk generates approximately $11.8 billion annually in hunting-related travel, equipment and related expenditures.[126] Conservation laws prevent the sale of unlicensed wild game meat, although it may be donated.
Deer have often been bred in captivity as ornaments for parks, but only in the case of reindeer has thorough domestication succeeded.[127] By 2012, some 25,000 tons of red deer were raised on farms in North America. TheSami of Scandinavia and theKola Peninsula of Russia and other nomadic peoples of northern Asia use reindeer for food, clothing, and transport. Others are bred for hunting are selected based on the size of the antlers.[128] The major deer-producing countries are New Zealand, the market leader, with Ireland, Great Britain and Germany. The trade earns over $100 million annually for these countries.[129]
Automobile collisions with deer can impose a significant cost on the economy. In the U.S., about 1.5 million deer-vehicle collisions occur each year, according to theNational Highway Traffic Safety Administration. Those accidents cause about 150 human deaths and $1.1 billion in property damage annually.[130] In Scotland, several roads including theA82, theA87 and theA835 have had significant enough problems withdeer vehicle collisions (DVCs) that sets of vehicle activated automatic warning signs have been installed along these roads.[131]
The skins make a peculiarly strong, soft leather, known asbuckskin. There is nothing special about skins with the fur still on since the hair is brittle and soon falls off. The hooves and antlers are used for ornamental purposes, especially the antlers of theroe deer, which are utilized for making umbrella handles, and for similar purposes; elk antlers is often employed in making knife handles. Among theInuit, the traditionalulu women's knife was made with an antler or ivory handle.[132] In China, atraditional chinese medicine is made from stag antler, and the antlers of certain species are eaten when "in the velvet".[127] Antlers can also be boiled down to release the protein gelatin, which is used as a topical treatment for skin irritation and is also used in cooking.[133]
Since the early 20th century, deer have become commonly thought of as pests in New Zealand due to a lack of predators on the island causing population numbers to increase and begin encroaching on more populated areas. They compete with livestock for resources, as well as cause excess erosion and wreak havoc on wild plant species and agriculture alike. They can also have an effect on the conservation efforts of other plant and animal species, as they can critically offset the balance within an environment by drastically depleting diversity within forests.[134]
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