Carob pods have a number of culinary applications, including a powder or chips that can be used as achocolate alternative. The seeds are used to producelocust bean gum or carob gum, a commonthickening agent used infood processing.
The carob tree grows up to 15 metres (50 feet) tall. Thecrown is broad and semispherical, supported by a thick trunk with rough brown bark and sturdy branches. Itsleaves are 10 to 20 centimetres (4 to 8 inches) long, alternate, pinnate, and may or may not have a terminal leaflet. It is frost-tolerant to roughly −7 °C (19 °F).[citation needed]
Most carob trees aredioecious, so strictly male trees do not produce fruit, but some arehermaphroditic.[1] When the trees blossom in autumn, the flowers are small and numerous, spirally arranged along theinflorescence axis incatkin-likeracemes borne on spurs from old wood and even on the trunk (cauliflory); they arepollinated by bothwind andinsects. The male flowers smell like humansemen, an odor that is caused in part byamines.[2]
Thefruit is alegume (also known commonly, but less accurately, as apod), that is elongated, compressed, straight, or curved, and thickened at the sutures. The pods take a full year to develop and ripen. When the sweet, ripe pods eventually fall to the ground, they are eaten by various mammals, such as swine, thereby dispersing the hard inner seed in the excrement.[citation needed]
The word "carob" comes fromMiddle Frenchcarobe (modern Frenchcaroube), which borrowed it fromArabicخَرُّوبٌ (kharrūb, "locust bean pod") and Persiankhirnub,[4] which ultimately borrowed it perhaps fromAkkadian languageharūb- orAramaicחרובאḥarrūḇā.[5] '
Ceratonia siliqua, the scientific name of the carob tree, derives from theGreekκερατωνίαkeratōnía, "carob-tree" (cf.κέραςkéras, "horn"),[6] andLatinsiliqua "pod, carob".[7]
The carob genus,Ceratonia, belongs to the legume family,Fabaceae, and is believed to be an archaic remnant of a part of this family now generally consideredextinct. It grows well in warmtemperate andsubtropical areas, and tolerates hot and humid coastal areas. As axerophyte (drought-resistant species), carob is well adapted to the conditions of the Mediterranean region with just 250 to 500 millimetres (10 to 20 in) of rainfall per year.[17]
Carob trees can survive long periods of drought, but to grow fruit, they need 500 to 550 millimetres (20 to 22 in) of rainfall per year.[17] They prefer well-drained, sandyloams and are intolerant ofwaterlogging, but the deeproot systems can adapt to a wide variety of soil conditions and are fairlysalt-tolerant (up to 3% in soil).[17] After being irrigated withsaline water in the summer, carob trees could possibly recover during winter rainfalls.[24] In some experiments, young carob trees were capable of basicphysiological functions under high-salt conditions (40 mmol NaCl/L).[24]
Not all legume species can develop asymbiotic relationship withrhizobia to make use ofatmospheric nitrogen. It remains unclear if carob trees have this ability: Some findings suggest that it is not able to formroot nodules with rhizobia,[17] while in another more recent study, trees have been identified with nodules containingbacteria believed to be from the genusRhizobium.[25] However, a study measuring the15N-signal (isotopic signature) in the tissue of the carob tree did not support the theory that carob trees naturally use atmospheric nitrogen.[26]
The vegetative propagation of carob is naturally restricted due to its low adventitious rooting potential. Therefore,grafting andair-layering may prove to be more effective methods of asexual propagation.[27] Seeds are commonly used as the propagation medium. The sowing occurs inpot nurseries in early spring and the cooling- and drying-sensitive seedlings are then transplanted to the field in the next year after the last frost. Carob trees enter slowly into production phase. Where in areas with favorable growing conditions, the cropping starts 3–4 years after budding, with the nonbearing period requiring up to 8 years in regions with marginal soils. Full bearing of the trees occurs mostly at a tree-age of 20–25 years when the yield stabilizes.[17] The orchards are traditionally planted in low densities of 25–45 trees perhectare (10 to 20/acre).Hermaphroditic or male trees, which produce fewer or no pods, respectively, are usually planted in lower densities in the orchards aspollenizers.[citation needed]
Intercropping with other tree species is widely spread. Not much cultivation management is required. Only light pruning and occasional tilling to reduce weeds is necessary. Nitrogen-fertilizing of the plants has been shown to have positive impacts on yield performance.[17] Although it is native to moderately dry climates, two or three summers' irrigation greatly aid the development, hasten the fruiting, and increase the yield of a carob tree.[28]
The most labour-intensive part of carob cultivation is harvesting, which is often done by knocking the fruit down with a long stick and gathering them together with the help of laid-out nets. This is a delicate task because the trees are flowering at the same time and care has to be taken not to damage the flowers and the next year's crop. The literature recommends research to get the fruit to ripen more uniformly or also for cultivars which can be mechanically harvested (by shaking).[17]
Freshly harvested carob pods have a moisture content of 10–20% and should be dried down to a moisture content of 8% so they do not rot. Further processing separates the kernels (seeds) from the pulp. This process is called kibbling and results in seeds and pieces of carob pods (kibbles). Processing of the pulp includes grinding for animal feed production or roasting and milling for human food industry. The seeds have to be peeled which happens with acid or through roasting. Theendosperm and the embryo are then separated for different uses.[17]
Few pests cause severe damage in carob orchards, so they have traditionally not been treated withpesticides. Some generalist pests such as the larvae of the leopard moth (Zeuzera pyrina L.), the dried fruit moth (Cadra calidella), small rodents such as rats (Rattus spp.) and gophers (Pitymys spp.) can occasionally cause damage in some regions. Only some cultivars are severely susceptible tomildew disease (Oidium ceratoniae C.). One pest directly associated with carob is the larva of the carob moth (Myelois ceratoniae Z.), which can cause extensive postharvest damage.[17]
Cadra calidella both attack carob crops before harvest and infest products in stores. This moth, prevalent in Cyprus, will often infest the country's carob stores. Research has been conducted to understand the physiology of the moth, in order to gain insight on how to monitor moth reproduction and lower their survival rates, such as through temperature control,pheromone traps, orparasitoid traps.[29]
In 2022, world production of carob (as locust beans) was estimated to be 56,423tonnes,[30] although not all countries known to grow carob reported their results to theUN Food and Agriculture Organization. Production amounts forTurkey andMorocco accounted for nearly all the world total reported in 2022.[30]
Most of the roughly 50 known cultivars[17] are of unknown origin and only regionally distributed. The cultivars show high genetic and therefore morphological and agronomical variation.[17] No conventional breeding by controlled crossing has been reported, but selection from orchards or wild populations has been done. Domesticated carobs (C. s. var.edulis) can be distinguished from their wild relatives (C. s. var.silvestris) by some fruit-yielding traits such as building of greater beans, more pulp, and higher sugar contents. Also, genetic adaptation of some varieties to the climatic requirements of their growing regions has occurred.[17] Though a partially successful breaking of thedioecy happened, the yield ofhermaphrodite trees still cannot compete with that of female plants, as their pod-bearing properties are worse.[31] Future breeding would be focused on processing-quality aspects, as well as on properties for better mechanization of harvest or better-yielding hermaphroditic plants. The use of modern breeding techniques is restricted due to lowpolymorphism formolecular markers.[17]
Carob products consumed by humans come from the dried, sometimes roasted,pod, which has two main parts: thepulp accounts for 90% and theseeds 10% by weight.[17][32] Carob pulp is sold either asflour or "chunks".[32] The flour of the carobembryo (seed) can also be used for human and animal nutrition,[17] but the seed is often separated before makingcarob powder.
Carob pods are mildly sweet on their own (being roughly one third to one half sugar by dry weight), so they are used in powdered, chip or syrup form as an ingredient incakes andcookies, sometimes as a substitute forchocolate in recipes because of the color, texture, and taste of carob. InMalta, atraditionalsweet calledkaramelli tal-harrub and eaten during theChristian holidays ofLent andGood Friday is made from carob pods.[33] Dried carob fruit is traditionally eaten on theJewish holiday ofTu Bishvat.[34]
Locust bean gum is produced from theendosperm, which accounts for 42–46% of the carob seed, and is rich ingalactomannans (88% of endospermdry mass). Galactomannans arehydrophilic and swell in water. If galactomannans are mixed with other gelling substances, such ascarrageenan, they can be used to effectively thicken the liquid part of food. This is used extensively incanned food for animals in order to get the "jellied" texture.[32]
While chocolate contains the chemical compoundtheobromine in levels that are toxic to somemammals, carob contains none, and it also has nocaffeine, so it is sometimes used to make chocolate-like treats for dogs.[43][44][45] Carob podmeal is also used as an energy-richfeed for livestock, particularly forruminants, though its hightannin content may limit this use.[46]
Thepulp of a carob pod is about 48–56%sugars and 18%cellulose andhemicellulose.[17] Some differences in sugar (sucrose) content are seen betweenwild andcultivated carob trees: ~531 g/kg dry weight in cultivated varieties and ~437 g/kg in wild varieties.Fructose andglucose levels do not differ between cultivated and wild carob.[47] Theembryo (20–25% of seed weight) is rich in proteins (50%). The testa, orseed coat (30–33% of seed weight), contains cellulose,lignins, andtannins.[32][48]
Carob pods are about a third to a halfsugar by weight, and this sugar can be extracted into a syrup.[49] InMalta, a carob syrup (ġulepp tal-ħarrub) is made out of the pods. Carob syrup is also used inCrete,[50] andCyprus exports it.[51]
InEgypt and theLevant, crushed carob pods are heated to caramelize their natural sugars, producing carob molasses. Water and brown sugar are then added to the mixture and boiled for a period of time. The resulting beverage, served cold and known as "kharrub" or "kharoub," is particularly popular during the month ofRamadan. This drink is widely sold by juice shops and street vendors and holds cultural significance in both the Levant and Egypt.[52][53][54][55]
InLebanon the molasses is calleddebs el kharrub (literally: molasses of the carob), but people generally shorten it todebs. The molasses has a sweet, chocolate-like flavor. It is commonly mixed withtahini (typically 75% kharrub molasses and 25% tahini). The resulting mixture is calleddebs bi tahini and is eaten raw or with bread. The molasses is also used in certain cakes.[56] The region ofIqlim al-Kharrub, which translates to theregion of the carob, produces a significant amount of carob.[citation needed]
InCyprus, the dried and milled carob pods are left to soak in water, before being transferred into special containers out of which the carob juice gradually seeps out of and is collected. The juice is then boiled with constant stirring yielding a thick syrup known asharoupomelo.[57][58] Although this syrup is frequently sold and eaten as is,haroupomelo is also used as a base for a localtoffee-like sweet snack known aspasteli.[59] Constant stirring of the carob syrup causes it to form into a black, amorphous mass which is then left to cool. The mass is then kneaded, stretched and pulled until the fair, golden color and toffee-like texture ofpasteli is obtained.[58]
Carob is used forcompote,liqueur, and syrup in Turkey, Malta, Portugal, Spain, and Sicily.[citation needed] InLibya, carob syrup (calledrub) is used as a complement toasida (made from wheat flour).[citation needed] The so-called "carob syrup" made inPeru is actually from the fruit of theProsopis nigra tree.[citation needed] Because of its strong taste, carob syrup is sometimes flavored with orange or chocolate.[citation needed] InYemen, carob tree is playing a role in controlling diabetes mellitus according to Yemeni folk medicine, and diabetics consume carob pods as a juice to lower their blood sugar levels.[60]
The carob tree is widely cultivated in the horticulturalnursery industry as anornamental plant forMediterranean climates and othertemperate regions around the world, being especially popular in California andHawaii. The plant develops a sculpted trunk and the form of an ornamental tree after being "limbed up" as it matures, otherwise it is used as a dense and largescreening hedge. The plant is verydrought tolerant as long as one does not care about the size of the fruit harvest, so can be used inxeriscapelandscape design forgardens, parks, and public municipal and commercial landscapes.[61]
In some areas of Greece,viz. Crete, carob wood is often used as afirewood.[62] As it makes such excellent fuel, it is sometimes even preferred over oak or olive wood.
Because the much fluted stem usually showsheart rot, carob wood is rarely used for construction timber.[63] However, it is sometimes sought for ornamental work—particularly for furniture design, as the natural shape of the trunk is well-suited to the task. Additionally, the extremely wavygrain of the wood gives carob wood exceptional resistance tosplitting;[64] thus, sections of Carobbole are suitable for chopping blocks for splitting wood.
^Gotfredsen E."Leucodelphinidin".Liber Herbarum Minor (English): The incomplete reference-guide to Herbal medicine.Archived from the original on 2017-07-31. Retrieved2017-07-31.
^Little, Elbert L. (1994) [1980].The Audubon Society Field Guide to North American Trees: Western Region (Chanticleer Press ed.). Knopf. p. 488.ISBN0394507614.
^Rehm S, Espig G (1991).The cultivated plants of the tropics and subtropics : cultivation, economic value, utilization. Weikersheim (DE): Margraf. pp. viii, 552 p. – p.220.
^"A Brief on Bokser".Forward. 4 February 2005.Archived from the original on 22 December 2022. Retrieved22 December 2022.
^Pearsall J (2011)."keration".The Oxford English Dictionary (12th ed.). New York: Oxford University Press. p. 211.ISBN978-0-19-960108-0.Archived from the original on 2023-09-28. Retrieved2022-06-21.
^"Fruits". Turkish Cuisine. Archived fromthe original on 2011-07-28. Retrieved2010-07-26.
^Valentin Calderon, Lionel."Barrio Algarrobos" (in Spanish). Aquí Esta Puerto Rico.Archived from the original on 2019-03-08. Retrieved2019-03-07.
^abCorreia PJ, Gamaa F, Pestana M, Martins-Loução MA (2010). "Tolerance of young (Ceratonia siliqua L.) carob rootstock to NaCl".Agricultural Water Management.97 (6):910–916.Bibcode:2010AgWM...97..910C.doi:10.1016/j.agwat.2010.01.022.
^Missbah El Idrissi M, Aujjar N, Belabed A, Dessaux Y, Filali-Maltouf A (1996). "Characterization of rhizobia isolated from Carob tree (Ceratonia siliqua)".Journal of Applied Microbiology.80 (2):165–73.doi:10.1111/j.1365-2672.1996.tb03205.x.
^La Malfa S, Tribulato E, Gentile A, Gioacchini P, Ventura M, Tagliavini M (2010). "15N natural abundance technique does not reveal the presence of nitrogen from biological fixation in field grown carob (Ceratonia siliqua L.) trees".Acta Horticulturae.868:191–195.
^Cox PD (1975). "The influence of photoperiod on the life-cycles of Ephestia calidella (Guenee) and Ephestia figulilella Gregson (Lepidoptera: Phycitidae)".Journal of Stored Products Research.11 (2):77–85.doi:10.1016/0022-474X(75)90043-0.
^Zohary D (2013). "Domestication of the carob (Ceratonia siliqua L.)".Israel Journal of Plant Sciences.50 (supplement 1):141–145.doi:10.1560/BW6B-4M9P-U2UA-C6NN (inactive 11 July 2025).{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of July 2025 (link)
^abcdDroste R (1993).Möglichkeiten und Grenzen des Anbaus von Johannisbrot (Ceratonia siliqua L.) als Bestandteil eines traditionellen Anbausystems in Algarve, Portugal [Possibilities and limitations of the cultivation of locust bean (Ceratonia siliqua L.) as part of a traditional farming system in Algarve, Portugal] (in German). Institut für Pflanzenbau und Tierhygiene in den Tropen und Subtropen, Georg-August-Universität Göttingen: Goltze.ISBN978-3-88452-743-6.
^ab"Carob Pod", Mathew Attokaran,Natural Food Flavors and Colorants, 2017,ISBN1119114764, p. 112
^Broshi, Magen (2001).Bread, Wine, Walls and Scrolls. The Library of Second Temple Studies. London: Bloomsbury Publishing PLC. p. 128.ISBN978-1-84127-201-6.
^Burg B (2007).Good Treats For Dogs Cookbook for Dogs: 50 Home-Cooked Treats for Special Occasions. Quarry Books. p. 28.
^Puotinen CJ (2000).The Encyclopedia of Natural Pet Care. McGraw Hill Professional. p. 81.
^Heuzé V, Sauvant D, Tran G, Lebas F, Lessire M (October 3, 2013)."Carob (Ceratonia siliqua)". Feedipedia.org. A programme byINRA,CIRAD, AFZ andFAO.Archived from the original on October 12, 2013. RetrievedOctober 3, 2013.
^Biner B, Gubbuk H, Karhan M, Aksu M, Pekmezci M (January 2007). "Sugar profiles of the pods of cultivated and wild types of carob bean (Ceratonia siliqua L.) in Turkey".Food Chemistry.100 (4):1453–1455.doi:10.1016/j.foodchem.2005.11.037.
^El-Haddad, Laila; Schmitt, Maggie."Carob Juice".The Gaza Kitchen: A Palestinian Culinary Journey.Archived from the original on 18 October 2022. Retrieved18 October 2022.
.jpg)
