The Central Powers' origin was thealliance of Germany and Austria-Hungary in 1879. Despite having nominally joined theTriple Alliance before,Italy did not take part in World War I on the side of the Central Powers and later joined on the side of theAllies. The Ottoman Empire and Bulgaria did not join until after World War I had begun. The Central Powers faced, and were defeated by, the Allied Powers, which themselves had formed around theTriple Entente. They dissolved in 1918 after they lost the war.
The name 'Central Powers' is derived from the location of its member countries. All four were located between theRussian Empire in the east andFrance and theUnited Kingdom in the west.[3] The Central Powers too used the name in their languages respectively, with the exception of Turkish, in which the Central Powers were called theدولتري,İttıfâq Devletleri, orBağlaşma Devletleri, 'Allied States'. Likewise in China, an associated state on the Allied side, the Central Powers were called the同盟國,同盟国, 'Allied States', while the Allies were known as the協約國,协约国, 'Entente States'.[citation needed]
The Ottomans enter the conflict: propaganda postcard.
On 28 July 1914, Austria-Hungary, supported by Germany, declared war onSerbia.[5] Germany then supported its only reliable and dependable ally, the Dual Monarchy, and attempted to localize the Austro-Serbian conflict, without success.[6]
Officially neutral at the outbreak of the conflict, the Ottoman Empire was nevertheless bound to Germany by a secret treaty; for nearly two months, the Ottoman government maneuvered, pursued a policy favorable to German interests, and prepared for war but did not formally commit.[7] The autumn of 1914 was marked by the strategic failure of Germany and the Dual Monarchy, and on 29 October 1914, an action by cruisers sold to the Ottoman Empire in August 1914 prompted the Ottoman Empire's entry into the war alongside the Central Powers.[8]
German propaganda postcard magnifying Bulgaria’s intervention in the conflict. Inscription:Bulgarien mit uns!Bulgaria with us!.
Throughout 1915, the Bulgarian government was courted by both alliance blocs, but, faced with the distant and hypothetical promises of theAllies, the government aligned with Germany and its allies, signing an alliance treaty with the Central Powers, the Dual Monarchy, and the Ottoman Empire; the signing of this treaty solidified Germany’s alliances until 29 September 1918, the date when the armistice between Bulgaria and the Allies took effect.[9]
Thus,King Ferdinand tied his country to the alliance bloc that guaranteed rapid annexations over its Serbian rivals.[10]
Under this convention, the Bulgarian government agreed to subordinate its army to directives issued by the German Emperor.[11]
In early July 1914, in the aftermath of the assassination of Austro-HungarianArchduke Franz Ferdinand and faced with the prospect of war between Austria-Hungary andSerbia,KaiserWilhelm II and the German government informed the Austro-Hungarian government that Germany would uphold its alliance with Austria-Hungary and defend it from possible Russian intervention if a war between Austria-Hungary and Serbia took place.[12] When Russia enacted ageneral mobilization, Germany viewed the act as provocative.[13]: 39 The Russian government promised Germany that its general mobilization did not mean preparation for war with Germany but was a reaction to the tensions between Austria-Hungary and Serbia.[13]: 39 The German government regarded the Russian promise of no war with Germany to be nonsense in light of its general mobilization, and Germany, in turn, mobilized for war.[13]: 39 On 1 August, Germany sent an ultimatum toRussia stating that since both Germany and Russia were in a state of military mobilization, an effective state of war existed between the two countries.[13]: 95 Later that day,France, an ally of Russia, declared a state of general mobilization.[13]: 95
In August 1914, Germany attacked Russia, citing Russian aggression as demonstrated by the mobilization of the Russian army, which had resulted in Germany mobilizing in response.[14]
After Germany declared war on Russia, France, with its alliance with Russia, prepared a general mobilization in expectation of war. On 3 August 1914, Germany responded to this action by declaring war on France.[15] Germany, facing a two-front war, enacted what was known as theSchlieffen Plan, which involved German armed forces moving throughBelgium and swinging south into France and towards the French capital of Paris. This plan was hoped to quickly gain victory against the French and allow German forces to concentrate on the Eastern Front. Belgium was a neutral country and would not accept German forces crossing its territory. Germany disregarded Belgian neutrality and invaded the country to launch an offensive towards Paris. This causedGreat Britain to declare war against the German Empire, as the action violated theTreaty of London that both nations signed in 1839 guaranteeing Belgian neutrality.[16]
Subsequently, several states declared war on Germany in late August 1914, withItaly declaring war on Germany in August 1916,[17] theUnited States in April 1917,[18] andGreece in July 1917.[19]
The German Empire had incorporated the province ofAlsace-Lorraine, after successfully defeating France in theFranco-Prussian War. However, the province was still claimed by Frenchrevanchists,[20][21] leading to its return to France at the Treaty of Versailles.[22]
The German Empire was late to colonization, only beginning overseas expansion in the 1870s and 1880s. Colonization was opposed by much of the government, including chancellorOtto von Bismarck, but it became a colonial power after participating in theBerlin Conference. Then, private companies were founded and began settling parts of Africa, the Pacific, and China. Later these groups became German protectorates and colonies.[23]
Cameroon was a German colony existing from 1884 until its complete occupation in 1915. It was ceded to France as aLeague of Nations Mandate at the war's end.[24]
Austro-Hungarian soldiers in a trench on the Italian frontAustro-Hungarian soldiers marching upMount Zion inJerusalem in the Ottoman Empire, during the Middle Eastern campaign
Austria-Hungary regarded the assassination ofArchduke Franz Ferdinand as having been orchestrated with the assistance ofSerbia.[12] The country viewed the assassination as setting a dangerous precedent of encouraging the country'sSouth Slav population to rebel and threaten to tear apart the multinational country.[13]: 39 Austria-Hungary sent a formal ultimatum to Serbia demanding a full-scale investigation of Serbian government complicity in the assassination and complete compliance by Serbia in agreeing to the terms demanded by Austria-Hungary.[12] Serbia submitted to accept most of the demands. However, Austria-Hungary viewed this as insufficient and used this lack of full compliance to justify military intervention.[12] These demands have been viewed as a diplomatic cover for an inevitable Austro-Hungarian declaration of war on Serbia.[12]
Russia had warned Austria-Hungary that the Russian government would not tolerate Austria-Hungary invading Serbia.[12] However, with Germany supporting Austria-Hungary's actions, the Austro-Hungarian government hoped that Russia would not intervene and that the conflict with Serbia would remain a regional conflict.[12]
Austria-Hungary's invasion of Serbia resulted in Russia declaring war on the country, and Germany, in turn, declared war on Russia, setting off the beginning of the clash of alliances that resulted in the World War.[34] In support of his German ally, on Thursday, 6 August 1914,Emperor Franz Joseph signed the declaration of war on Russia.
Ottoman soldiers in military preparations for an assault on theSuez Canal in 1914Kaiser Wilhelm II visiting the Turkish cruiserYavuz Sultan Selim during his stay inIstanbul in October 1917 as a guest of SultanMehmed V
The Ottoman Empire joined the war on the side of the Central Powers in November 1914. The Ottoman Empire had gained strong economic connections with Germany through the Berlin-to-Baghdad railway project that was still incomplete at the time.[41] The Ottoman Empire made a formal alliance with Germany signed on 2 August 1914.[42]: 292 The alliance treaty expected that the Ottoman Empire would become involved in the conflict in a short amount of time.[42]: 292 However, for the first several months of the war, the Ottoman Empire maintained neutrality though it allowed a German naval squadron to enter and stay near the strait ofBosphorus.[43] Ottoman officials informed the German government that the country needed time to prepare for conflict.[43] Germany provided financial aid and weapons shipments to the Ottoman Empire.[42]: 292
After pressure escalated from the German government demanding that the Ottoman Empire fulfill its treaty obligations, or else Germany would expel the country from the alliance and terminate economic and military assistance, the Ottoman government entered the war with the recently acquired cruisers from Germany, along with their own navy, launching anaval raid on the Russian ports ofOdessa,Sevastopol,Novorossiysk,Feodosia, andYalta,[44][45] thus engaging in military action in accordance with its alliance obligations with Germany. Shortly after, the Triple Entente declared war on the Ottoman Empire.[42]: 293
Bulgaria held claims on the region ofVardar Macedonia then held by Serbia following theBalkan Wars of 1912–1913 and theTreaty of Bucharest (1913).[49] As a condition of entering the war on the side of the Central Powers, Bulgaria was granted the right to reclaim that territory.[50][51]
In opposition to offensive operations by theUnion of South Africa, which had joined the war,Boer army officers of what is now known as theMaritz Rebellion "refounded" theSouth African Republic in September 1914. Germany assisted the rebels, with some operating in and out of the German colony ofGerman South-West Africa. The rebels were all defeated or captured by South African government forces by 4 February 1915.[52]
In 1915, theSultanate of Darfur renounced allegiance to theSudanese government and aligned with the Ottomans. They were able to contact them via theSenussi. Prior to this they were a British ally. TheAnglo-Egyptian Darfur Expedition preemptively invaded to prevent an attack on Sudan.[55] A small force was sent afterthe sultan and he was killed in action in November 1916.[56] The invasion ended with an Anglo-Egyptian victory in November 1916.[55]
TheZaian Confederation began to fight againstFrance in theZaian War to prevent French expansion intoMorocco.[57] The fighting lasted from 1914 and continued after the First World War ended, to 1921. The Central Powers (mainly the Germans) began to attempt to incite unrest to hopefully divert French resources from Europe.[58]
States listed in this section were not officially members of the Central Powers. Still, during the war, they cooperated with one or more Central Powers members on a level that makes their neutrality disputable.
TheEthiopian Empire was officially neutral throughout World War I but widely suspected of sympathy for the Central Powers between 1915 and 1916. At the time, Ethiopia was one of only two fully independent states in Africa (the other beingLiberia) and a major power in theHorn of Africa. Its ruler,Lij Iyasu, was widely suspected of harbouring pro-Islamic sentiments and being sympathetic to the Ottoman Empire.[80] The German Empire also attempted to reach out to Iyasu, dispatching several unsuccessful expeditions to the region to attempt to encourage it to collaborate in anArab Revolt-style uprising in East Africa. One of the unsuccessful expeditions was led byLeo Frobenius, a celebrated ethnographer and personal friend of Kaiser Wilhelm II. Under Iyasu's directions, Ethiopia probably supplied weapons to the Muslim Dervish rebels during theSomaliland Campaign of 1915 to 1916, indirectly helping the Central Powers' cause.[81]
The Allies jointly pressured the aristocracy for the designated emperor's removal on the 10th of September, 1916 stating he was a threat to both the Allies and Ethiopia.[82] Fearing the rising influence of Iyasu and the Ottoman Empire, the Christian nobles of Ethiopia conspired against Iyasu. Iyasu was first excommunicated by theEthiopian Orthodox Patriarch and eventually deposed in a coup d'état on 27 September 1916. A less pro-Ottoman regent,RasTafari Makonnen, was installed on the throne.[81]
Liechtenstein was officially neutral throughout World War I, though the general population and government was supportive of the Central Powers, particularlyAustria-Hungary, with which the two countries had been in acustoms union since 1852. However, from September 1914 food deliveries from Austria-Hungary began to decrease, which quickly soured the initial war support.[83] By 1916 all food deliveries from Austria-Hungary had ceased, which forced Liechtenstein to seek closer ties with Switzerland in order to ensure food deliveries continued.[83][84] From 1916, Liechtenstein was embargoed by the Entente countries due to its connections with the Central Powers; this caused mass unemployment in the country.[85] The government remained sympathetic to the Central Powers until 7 November 1918, when theNovember 1918 Liechtenstein putsch took place and a new government took power.[86]
Following their armistice with the Central Powers,Romania wasinvolved in the Russian Civil War against both the Whites and the Reds. Romania fought alongside the Central Powers until it rejoined the war against them on November 10, 1918.[90]
Other movements supported the efforts of the Central Powers for their own reasons, such as the radicalIrish Nationalists who launched theEaster Rising inDublin in April 1916; they referred to their "gallant allies in Europe". However, most Irish Nationalists supported the British and allied war effort up until 1916, when the Irish political landscape was changing. In 1914,Józef Piłsudski was permitted by Germany and Austria-Hungary to form independentPolish legions. Piłsudski wanted his legions to help the Central Powers defeat Russia and then side with France and the UK and win the war with them.[92] Below is a list of these non-state combatants.
Germany was required to demilitarize theRhineland, to reduce theirarmy to 100,000 men, and thenavy to 15,000 sailors, and to pay 132 billion gold marks (US$33 billion).Tanks,submarines, and anair force were all forbidden.
The Treaty of Sèvres caused resentment among the Turkish populace of the Ottoman Empire and resulted in the outbreak of theTurkish War of Independence, after which the Treaty of Lausanne was signed.
10 August 1920/24 August 1923
A postcard depicting the flags of the Central Powers' countries
Poster for a 1916charity bazaar raising funds for widows and orphans of the Central Power states
As the war lasted longer than expected, Germany’s allies gradually sought to remove themselves from its sphere of its influence. Thus, the death ofFrancis Joseph and the accession of his successorCharles marked a paradigm shift in relations between Germany and the Dual Monarchy. Indeed, the young emperor quickly sought to distance himself from the policy pursued in Germany: this distancing was materialized by the transfer of the Austro-Hungarian Armeeoberkommando, the high command, fromTeschen, near Pless, the seat of the OHL, to Baden, nearVienna; this move was intended, according to its architects, to loosen Germany’s grip on the Dual Monarchy.[116]
Moreover, from 1916, Dual Monarchy leaders sought to exit the conflict at all costs, aware of the risks of disintegration if the war continued.[117]
Finally, the peace treaties of early 1918 led to the fall of the Bulgarian government ofVasil Radoslavov and its replacement byAleksandar Malinov, less loyal to the 1915 alliance. Feeling cheated by the division of the 1915 and 1916 conquests, Bulgarian leaders fueled discontent with the conflict, funding press campaigns unfavorable to Germany and the Dual Monarchy.[118]
Under the command ofLouis Franchet d'Espèrey, Franco-Serbian troops launched abreakthrough offensive against Bulgarian units weakened by privations, plagued by desertions, pacifist propaganda,[118] and exhausted by three years of positional warfare inMacedonia.[118] This breakthrough quickly shattered the Macedonian front and dismantled the Bulgarian position through theManeuver of Uskub [it] by Franco-Serbian troops.[118]
Faced with this alarming situation, the German high command ordered the deployment of occupation troops fromUkraine to the Balkans and the organization of a front south of Niš.[118] Moreover, on 28 September 1918,Erich Ludendorff ordered the commander of the few German divisions positioned in the Balkans to redeploy around Sofia to ensure Bulgaria’s continued commitment alongside its Quadruple Alliance partners; this attempt to counter Bulgaria’s unilateral initiative failed immediately due to the speed of the armistice negotiations between Allied plenipotentiaries and Bulgarian representatives.[118]
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