| Central Plains War | |||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Part of theWarlord Era | |||||||
 Map showing the province of Henan and two definitions of the Central Plain (中原) or Zhōngyuán | |||||||
| |||||||
| Belligerents | |||||||
 Nationalist government ofChinaMaterial support:  Germany[1] Czechoslovakia[1] Japan[1] | Warlord coalitions ofYan Xishan,Feng Yuxiang andLi Zongren Minor factions: Zhang Fakui's army[2] Tang Shengzhi's army[3] | ||||||
| Commanders and leaders | |||||||
| Chiang Kai-shek Han Fuju Liu Zhi Hu Zongnan Chen Cheng Tang Enbo Ma Hongkui Ma Bufang Max Bauer[5] Zhang Xueliang (from September 1930) | Yan Xishan Feng Yuxiang Li Zongren Bai Chongxi Fu Zuoyi Zhang Fakui[2] Tang Shengzhi[3] Wang Jingwei | ||||||
| Units involved | |||||||
| Warlord coalitions
| ||||||
| Strength | |||||||
| Chiang: 240,000+ (1929)[7] 295,000 (1930)[8] Allied warlords: Hundreds of thousands[9] Northeastern Army: 409,000 (1930)[9] | c. 650,000 (1929)[7] c. 700,000 (1930)[8] | ||||||
| Casualties and losses | |||||||
| 30,000 killed, 60,000 wounded(Nationalist gov. claim)[10] 150,000(modern estimate)[10] | 150,000(Nationalist claim)[10] | ||||||
| High civilian casualties[10] | |||||||
TheCentral Plains War (traditional Chinese:中原大戰;simplified Chinese:中原大战;pinyin:Zhōngyúan Dàzhàn) was a series of military campaigns in 1929 and 1930 that constituted a Chinesecivil war between the NationalistKuomintang government inNanjing led by GeneralissimoChiang Kai-shek and several regional military commanders and warlords who were former allies of Chiang.
After theNorthern Expedition ended in 1928,Yan Xishan,Feng Yuxiang,Li Zongren andZhang Fakui broke off relations with Chiang shortly after a demilitarization conference in 1929, and together they formed an anti-Chiang coalition to openly challenge the legitimacy of the Nanjing government. The war was the largest conflict in theWarlord Era, fought acrossHenan,Shandong,Anhui and other areas of theCentral Plains in China, involving 300,000 soldiers from Nanjing and 700,000 soldiers from the coalition.[11]
Compared to other senior party officials likeHu Hanmin andWang Jingwei, the political status of Chiang Kai-shek in theKuomintang (KMT) was lower in the beginning. Chiang began his rise to prominence in 1917 during theConstitutional Protection Movement and the formation of the Guangzhou government, where he displayed his military talent. The turning point came in 1923 whenChen Jiongming launched a rebellion againstSun Yat-sen in Guangzhou. Chiang's role in helping Sun to retreat from Guangzhou ultimately helped him to become Sun's protégé.[12]
After Sun's death in 1925, factions within the Kuomintang began to surface. A power struggle between Chiang and Wang Jingwei led to the split of the KMT. Chiang was able to use his influence as the commandant of theWhampoa Academy and eventually took over the leadership of the party, forcing Wang into exile overseas. In 1926, Chiang was ceremonially chosen as the commander of the newly formedNational Revolutionary Army and launched the Northern Expedition. In the course of the expedition, Chiang had managed to form an alliance with warlord armies ofFeng Yuxiang,Yan Xishan andLi Zongren.[13]
| Central Plains War | |||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Traditional Chinese | 中原大戰 | ||||||||
| Simplified Chinese | 中原大战 | ||||||||
| |||||||||
The Northern Expedition ended with thereunification of China in 1928 under the Nanjing government, asZhang Xueliang declared the allegiance of his Northeast Army to the Nationalist government in Nanjing, following theassassination of his fatherZhang Zuolin by the JapaneseKwantung Army. While Chiang emerged as the paramount leader of theRepublic of China, the reunification soon ran into issues as different factions in the Kuomintang disagreed over demilitarization at a military conference in 1929.[14] The National Revolutionary Army was reorganized into four army groups after the Northern Expedition, incorporating armies from regional warlords. The First Army Group was formed by theWhampoa clique, alternatively known as the Central Army, which were directly led by Chiang himself. The Second Army Group consisted of elements fromGuominjun led byFeng Yuxiang. The Third Army Group was led byYan Xishan of theShanxi clique, while the Fourth Army Group were led byLi Zongren of theNew Guangxi clique.[15]
On 1 January 1929, in Nanjing, the National Demilitarization Conference began. The leading figures including Chiang, Yan, Li and Feng gathered to discuss demobilization. Chiang was appointed as chairman, and though the conference did see some successes, it was overall a failure. A 2nd conference was held in August. This August conference divided China into 6 military regions roughly corresponding to the regions of the major warlords (and one for the minor warlords). The new national army was to have 65 divisions of 11,000 men or 715,000 soldiers (not including any personnel above divisional level); this was a large reduction of the 1,502,000 men currently under arms in China. Yan and Feng accused Chiang of attempting to centralise military power under his control and thus remove them from their positions of power.[16]
| Armies | 1929[17] | 1930[18] |
|---|---|---|
| National Revolutionary Army | ||
| Chiang Kai-Shek | 240,000 | 295,000 |
| Pro-Chiang Southerners | 300,000-400,000 | |
| Han Fuju | 30,000[19] | |
| Zhang Xueliang (Northeast Army) | 200,000 (neutral) | 409,000 |
| Total | 240,000 | 625,000-725,000 initially 1,034,000-1,134,000 September 1930 |
| Anti-Chiang Alliance | ||
| Feng Yuxiang (Guominjun) | 300,000 | 250,000 (140,000 deemed reliable) |
| Yan Xishan (Shanxi) | 181,000 | |
| Li Zongren (Guangxi) | 60,000 | |
| Other Anti-Chiang forces | 219,000 (did not participate) | |
| Anti-Chiang Southerners | 300,000 | |
| Zhang Fakui (ironsides) | 95,000[20] | |
| Total | 600,000 | 586,000 effective 805,000 paper |
Feng controlled the provinces of Gansu, Shaanxi and Henan. His partial control of Shandong provided him with large amounts of revenue needed for his military; however this was greatly affected by the fact that there was afamine andrebellion in Gansu. Feng asked Chiang for this territory.[21]
Hunan was controlled by the Guangxi clique (in addition to their other lands); this made the clique a threat to Chiang, who proceeded to appoint his own protege into power in Hunan. This angered the Guangxi clique, who ran Chiang's governor out of office. Chiang did not tolerate this action and prepared for war, while Feng was bribed with offers of large amounts of territory in Shandong for his neutrality. Other Northern Chinese leaders were also bribed for their neutrality so Chiang could focus entirely on the Wuhan armies.[22]
Following the demilitarization conference in 1929,Li Zongren,Bai Chongxi andHuang Shaohong of theGuangxi clique broke off relations with Chiang in March 1929, which effectively started the confrontation between these commanders and the Nanjing government. In May,Feng Yuxiang of the Northwest Army also clashed with Chiang. In November, Li Zongren issued a declaration to form anti-Chiang coalition along withWang Jingwei. In December,Tang Shengzhi andZhang Fakui announced their support of the anti-Chiang coalition. The Nanjing government responded by expelling Wang Jingwei from the party for his participation in the anti-Chiang coalition. The coalition created a new KMT government inBeijing to show their defiance of the Nanjing government. In February 1930,Yan Xishan of the Shanxi clique demanded the resignation of Chiang from the KMT, which was refused. Later in the same month, Yan assumed the leadership position in the anti-Chiang coalition, with the assistance of Feng and Li while Zhang Xueliang chose to remain "loyal" to Chiang.[23]
The Nanjing government enjoyed support from theChinese Muslims of theGansu province inNorthwest China. While the region was originally under the sphere of influence of the Northwest Army, influential Muslim leaders includingMa Tingrang,Ma Zhongying andMa Fuxiang broke off relations with Feng Yuxiang in 1928. Forces of the Chinese Muslims remained loyal to the Nanjing government through the war, diverting forces of Feng away from the Central Plains.[24]
The anti-Chiang coalition planned their renewed attack on the Nationalist government in Nanjing through different routes. Li Zongren was expected to lead theGuangxi Army from Guangxi and towardHunan to threaten the stronghold of Chiang inWuhan. Feng Yuxiang would lead the Northwest Army and march fromHenan toShandong, attackingXuzhou while also applying pressure on Wuhan. Yan Xishan would lead theShanxi Army and coordinate with the Northwest Army to strike Xuzhou together, and march towardNanjing after Xuzhou is captured by the coalition.
In response to the preparations, the Nationalists assignedHan Fuqu to set up defense in the southern bank of theYellow River to counter the Shanxi Army. Main forces of the Nationalists would be stationed in Xuzhou to await for impending offensives.[25]
On 11 May, the Central Army led by Chiang Kai-shek launched a series of general offensives against Yan Xishan and Feng Yuxiang. Following theLonghai Railway, the Central Army marched westward fromXuzhou, reaching the outskirts ofKaifeng in the Henan province by 16 May. The Northwest Army, being the strongest in the anti-Chiang coalition, crushed the Central Army led byChen Cheng inGansu by the end of May, with Chiang having escaped from near capture.[26] The Northwest Army could not capitalize on its victory, however, as the Shanxi Army was unable to arrive on time to deliver further damage to the Central Army. With the allies of Chiang in Gansu province, the Northwest Army turned to defense following the victory. InKaifeng the Northwest Army repelled attacks by Chiang's forces, inflicting heavy casualties. The combined forces of Shanxi Army and the Northwest Army later engaged in the largest conflict of the war in their attack on Xuzhou, with both sides sustaining combined casualties exceeding 200,000. The Shanxi Army retreated fromJinan and took further losses while crossing the Yellow River. The lack of coordination between forces of the anti-Chiang coalition was the beginning of the tide turning for the Nanjing government.[27]
In the southern battlefields the Guangxi Army led by Li Zongren and Bai Chongxi marched northwards and capturedYueyang, but Chiang's forces managed to cut them off from behind, eventually forcing them to withdraw to their home province. In Shandong the Shanxi Army capturedJinan on 25 June. After defeating the Guangxi Army in Hunan, theNanjing government decided to launch a major counteroffensive against the Shanxi Army in Shandong. Marching fromQingdao, Chiang's forces retook Jinan on 15 August. The Central Army then amassed troops in Gansu andShaanxi provinces, launching their final offensive against the Northwest Army which lasted from the end of August to the beginning of September.[27]
On 18 September Zhang Xueliang and the Northeast Army abandoned their neutrality and declared their support for Chiang. Several days later the Northeast Army entered theNorth China Plain throughShanhai Pass and captured Peking two days later. The Shanxi Army withdrew to the north of the Yellow River, while the Northwest Army collapsed as the morale of the anti-Chiang coalition no longer existed. On 4 November both Yan Xishan and Feng Yuxiang announced their resignations from all of their positions, which effectively ended the hostilities and brought an end to regional challenges against the Nanjing government.[26]
The Central Plains War was the largest armed conflict in China since theNorthern Expedition ended in 1928. The conflicts spread across multiple provinces in China, involving different regional commanders with combined forces of more than one million. While the Nationalist government in Nanjing came out victorious, the conflict was financially costly which had a negative influence on the subsequentEncirclement Campaigns over theChinese Communist Party.
After the entrance of the Northeast Army into central China, the defense ofManchuria was significantly weakened, which indirectly led to Japanese aggression in theMukden Incident. While Chiang emerged from the war having consolidated his power as the supreme leader and established himself as an accomplished military commander, the regional factions in the Kuomintang and their rivalries remained unsolved, which led to various problems later in theSecond Sino-Japanese War and theChinese Civil War.[26]
