Central Asian art

Female statuette of theBactria–Margiana Archaeological Complex,c. 2000 BC.Miho Museum.^[1][2]

AGreco-Bactrian statuette fromAi-Khanoum (2nd century BC), and funerary statue fromKosh-Agach (8th–10th century AD).

Central Asian art isvisual art created inCentral Asia, in areas corresponding to modernKyrgyzstan,Kazakhstan,Uzbekistan,Turkmenistan,Tajikistan,Afghanistan, and parts of modern Mongolia, China and Russia.^[3][4] The art of ancient and medieval Central Asia reflects the rich history of this vast area, home to a huge variety of peoples, religions and ways of life. The artistic remains of the region show a remarkable combinations of influences that exemplify the multicultural nature of Central Asian society. TheSilk Road transmission of art,Scythian art,Greco-Buddhist art,Serindian art and more recentlyPersianate culture, are all part of this complicated history.

From the late second millennium BC until very recently, the grasslands of Central Asia – stretching from theCaspian Sea to central China and from southern Russia to northern India – have been home to migrating herders who practised mixed economies on the margins of sedentary societies. The prehistoric 'animal style' art of these pastoral nomads not only demonstrates their zoomorphic mythologies and shamanic traditions but also their fluidity in incorporating the symbols of sedentary society into their own artworks.

Central Asia has always been a crossroads of cultural exchange, the hub of the so-calledSilk Road – that complex system of trade routes stretching from China to the Mediterranean. Already in theBronze Age (3rd and 2nd millennium BC), growing settlements formed part of an extensive network of trade linking Central Asia to theIndus Valley, Mesopotamia and Egypt.^[5]

The arts of recent centuries are mainly influenced byIslamic art, but the varied earlier cultures were influenced by the art of China, Persia and Greece, as well as theAnimal style that developed among the nomadic peoples of thesteppes.^[4][6]

The first modern human occupation in the difficult climates of North and Central Asia is dated to circa 40,000 ago, with the earlyYana culture of northern Siberia dated to circa 31,000 BCE. By around 21,000 BCE, two main cultures developed: theMal'ta culture and slightly later theAfontova Gora-Oshurkovo culture.^[7]

TheMal'ta culture culture, centered around atMal'ta, at theAngara River, nearLake Baikal inIrkutsk Oblast,Southern Siberia, and located at the northeastern periphery of Central Asia, created some of the first works of art in theUpper Paleolithic period, with objects such as theVenus figurines of Mal'ta. These figures consist most often ofmammoth ivory. The figures are about 23,000 years old and stem from theGravettian. Most of these statuettes show stylized clothes. Quite often the face is depicted.^[8] The tradition ofUpper Paleolithic portable statuettes being almost exclusively European, it has been suggested that Mal'ta had some kind of cultural and cultic connection with Europe during that time period, but this remains unsettled.^[7][9]

TheBactria–Margiana Archaeological Complex (BMAC, also known as the "Oxus civilization") is the modern archaeological designation for aBronze Agearchaeological culture ofCentral Asia, dated to c. 2200–1700 BC, located in present-day easternTurkmenistan, northern Afghanistan, southernUzbekistan and westernTajikistan, centred on the upperAmu Darya (known to the ancient Greeks as the Oxus River), an area covering ancient Bactria. Its sites were discovered and named by theSoviet archaeologistViktor Sarianidi (1976). Bactria was the Greek name for Old PersianBāxtriš (from native *Bāxçiš)^[10] (named for its capital Bactra, modernBalkh), in what is now northern Afghanistan, andMargiana was the Greek name for the Persiansatrapy ofMargu, the capital of which wasMerv, in today's Turkmenistan.

Fertility goddesses, named "Bactrian princesses", made from limestone,chlorite and clay reflect agrarianBronze Age society, while the extensive corpus of metal objects point to a sophisticated tradition of metalworking.^[11] Wearing large stylised dresses, as well as headdresses that merge with the hair, "Bactrian princesses" embody the ranking goddess, character of the central Asian mythology that plays a regulatory role, pacifying the untamed forces.^{[citation needed]}

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  Female figurine of the "Bactrian princess" type; between 3rd millennium and 2nd millennium BC;chlorite mineral group (dress and headdresses) and limestone (face and neck); height: 17.3 cm, width: 16.1 cm;Louvre
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  Ancient bowl with animals, Bactria, 3rd–2nd millennium BC.
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  Axe with eagle-headed demon & animals; late 3rd millennium-early 2nd millennium BC;gilt silver; length: 15 cm;Metropolitan Museum of Art (New York City)
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  Camel figurine; late 3rd–early 2nd millennium BC; copper alloy; 8.89 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art
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  Monstrous male figure; late 3rd–early 2nd millennium BC;chlorite,calcite, gold and iron; height: 10.1 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art
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  Handled weight; late 3rd–early 2nd millennium BC; chlorite; 25.08 x 19.69 x 4.45 cm;Los Angeles County Museum of Art (USA)
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  Female figurine of the "Bactrian princess" type; 2500–1500; chlorite (dress and headdresses) and limestone (head, hands and a leg); height: 13.33 cm;Los Angeles County Museum of Art (USA)
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  Beaker with birds on the rim; late 3rd–early 2nd millennium BC;electrum; height: 12 cm, width: 13.3 cm, depth: 4.5 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art

ThePazyryk culture is aScythian^[12] nomadicIron Agearchaeological culture (of Iranian origin; c. 6th to 3rd centuries BC) identified by excavated artifacts and mummified humans found in theSiberianpermafrost, in theAltay Mountains,Kazakhstan and nearbyMongolia. The mummies are buried inlong barrows (orkurgans) similar to the tomb mounds of Scythian culture inUkraine. The type site are thePazyryk burials of theUkok Plateau.^[13] Many artifacts and human remains have been found at this location, including theSiberian Ice Princess, indicating a flourishing culture at this location that benefited from the many trade routes and caravans of merchants passing through the area.^[14] The Pazyryk are considered to have had a war-like life.^[15]

Other kurgan cemeteries associated with the culture include those of Bashadar, Tuekta, Ulandryk, Polosmak andBerel. There are so far no known sites of settlements associated with the burials, suggesting a purely nomadic lifestyle.

The remarkable textiles recovered from the Pazyryk burials include the oldest woollenknotted-pile carpet known, the oldest embroideredChinese silk, and two pieces of wovenPersian fabric (State Hermitage Museum, St. Petersburg). Red and ochre predominate in the carpet, the main design of which is of riders, stags, and griffins. Many of the Pazyryk felt hangings, saddlecloths, and cushions were covered with elaborate designs executed in appliqué feltwork, dyed furs, and embroidery. Of exceptional interest are those with animal and human figural compositions, the most notable of which are the repeat design of an investiture scene on a felt hanging and that of a semi-human, semi-bird creature on another (both in theState Hermitage Museum, St. Petersburg). Clothing, whether of felt, leather, or fur, was also lavishly ornamented.

Horse reins either had animal designs cut out on them or were studded with wooden ones covered in gold foil. Their tail sheaths were ornamented, as were their headpieces and breast pieces. Some horses were provided with leather or felt masks made to resemble animals, with stag antlers or rams' horns often incorporated in them. Many of the trappings took the form of iron, bronze, and gilt wood animal motifs either applied or suspended from them; and bits had animal-shaped terminal ornaments. Altai-Sayan animals frequently display muscles delineated with dot and comma markings, a formal convention that may have derived from appliqué needlework. Such markings are sometimes included inAssyrian,Achaemenian, and evenUrartian animal representations of theancient Middle East. Roundels containing a dot serve the same purpose on the stag and other animal renderings executed by contemporaryŚaka metalworkers. Animal processions of the Assyro-Achaemenian type also appealed to manyCentral Asian tribesmen and are featured in their arts.

Certain geometric designs andsun symbols, such as the circle androsette, recur at Pazyryk but are completely outnumbered by animal motifs. The stag and its relatives figure as prominently as in Altai-Sayan. Combat scenes betweencarnivores andherbivores are exceedingly numerous in Pazyryk work; the Pazyryk beasts are locked in such bitter fights that the victim's hindquarters become inverted.^[16]

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  Pazyryk carpet
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  Pazyryk saddlecloth.
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  Decorated tapestry with seated goddessTabiti and rider, Pazyryk Kurgan 5, Altai, Southern Russia c. 241 BC.^[17]

Tribes of Europoid type appear to have been active inMongolia and Southern Siberia from ancient times. They were in contact withChina and were often described for their foreign features.^[18]

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  Bronze plaque of a man of theOrdos Plateau, later held by theXiongnu. 3–1st century BC,British Museum.Otto Maenchen-Helfen notes that the statuette displaysCaucasoid features.^[19]
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  Belt buckle with Europoid types, Mongolia or southern Siberia, 2nd–1st century BC.^[20][21]
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  Belt Buckle, Mongolia or southern Siberia, 2nd–1st century BC.^[20]
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  TheBoar hunter, with characteristicXiongnuhorse trappings, SouthernSiberia, 280–180 BC.Hermitage Museum.^[22][23][24]

The art of theSaka was of a similar styles as other Iranian peoples of the steppes, which is referred to collectively asScythian art.^[26][27] In 2001, the discovery of an undisturbed royal Scythian burial-barrow illustrated Scythian animal-style gold that lacks the direct influence of Greek styles. Forty-four pounds of gold weighed down the royal couple in this burial, discovered nearKyzyl, capital of theSiberian republic ofTuva.

Ancient influences from Central Asia became identifiable in China following contacts of metropolitan China with nomadic western and northwestern border territories from the 8th century BC. The Chinese adopted the Scythian-style animal art of thesteppes (descriptions of animals locked in combat), particularly the rectangular belt-plaques made of gold or bronze, and created their own versions injade andsteatite.^{[28][page needed]}

Following their expulsion by theYuezhi, some Saka may also have migrated to the area ofYunnan in southern China. Saka warriors could also have served as mercenaries for the various kingdoms of ancient China. Excavations of the prehistoric art of theDian civilisation of Yunnan have revealed hunting scenes ofCaucasoid horsemen in Central Asian clothing.^[29]

Saka influences have been identified as far as Korea and Japan. Various Korean artifacts, such as the royal crowns of the kingdom ofSilla, are said to be of "Scythian" design.^[30] Similar crowns, brought through contacts with the continent, can also be found inKofun era Japan.^[31]

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  "Kings with dragons",Tillia Tepe
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  Battle scenes on theOrlat plaques. 1st century AD.
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  Crown from Tomb VI ofTillya Tepe (female owner)

Margiana andBactria belonged to theMedes for a time, and were then annexed to theAchaemenid Empire byCyrus the Great insixth century BC, forming the twelfth satrapy of Persia.^[33][34]

Under Persian rule, many Greeks were deported to Bactria, so that their communities and language became common in the area. During the reign ofDarius I, the inhabitants of the Greek city ofBarca, inCyrenaica, were deported to Bactria for refusing to surrender assassins.^[35] In addition, Xerxes also settled the "Branchidae" in Bactria; they were the descendants of Greek priests who had once lived nearDidyma (western Asia Minor) and betrayed the temple to him.^[36] Herodotus also records a Persian commander threatening to enslave daughters of therevolting Ionians and send them to Bactria.^[37] Persia subsequently conscripted Greek men from these settlements in Bactria into their military, as did Alexander later.^[38]

TheGreco-Bactrians ruled the southern part of Central Asia from the 3rd to the 2nd century BC, with their capital atAi-Khanoum.^[39][40][41]

The main known remains from this period are the ruins and artifacts of their city ofAi-Khanoum, aGreco-Bactrian city founded circa 280 BC which continued to flourish during the first 55 years of the Indo-Greek period until its destruction by nomadic invaders in 145 BC, and their coinage, which is often bilingual, combiningGreek with the IndianBrahmi script orKharoshthi.^[42] Apart from Ai-Khanoum, Indo-Greek ruins have been positively identified in few cities such asBarikot orTaxila, with generally much fewer known artistic remains.^[40][43]

Numerous artefacts and structures were found, particularly in Ai-Khanoum, pointing to a high Hellenistic culture, combined with Eastern influences, starting from the 280–250 BC period.^[44][45][46] Overall, Aï-Khanoum was an extremely important Greek city (1.5 sq kilometer), characteristic of theSeleucid Empire and then theGreco-Bactrian Kingdom, remaining one of the major cities at the time when the Greek kings started to occupy parts of India, from 200 to 145 BC. It seems the city was destroyed, never to be rebuilt, about the time of the death of kingEucratides around 145 BC.^[46]

Archaeological missions unearthed various structures, some of them perfectly Hellenistic, some other integrating elements ofPersian architecture, including a citadel, a Classical theater, a huge palace in Greco-Bactrian architecture, somehow reminiscent of formal Persian palatial architecture, agymnasium (100 × 100m), one of the largest of Antiquity, various temples, a mosaic representing the Macedonian sun,acanthus leaves and various animals (crabs, dolphins etc...), numerous remains of ClassicalCorinthian columns.^[46] Many artifacts are dated to the 2nd century BC, which corresponds to the early Indo-Greek period.

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  Ai- Khanoum mosaic (central detail in color).
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  Architecturalantefixae with Hellenistic "Flame palmette" design, Ai-Khanoum.
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  Sun dial within two sculpted lion feet.
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  Wingedantefix, a type only known from Ai-Khanoum.

Various sculptural fragments were also found atAi-Khanoum, in a rather conventional, classical style, rather impervious to the Hellenizing innovations occurring at the same time in the Mediterranean world. Of special notice, a huge foot fragment in excellent Hellenistic style was recovered, which is estimated to have belonged to a 5–6 meter tall statue (which had to be seated to fit within the height of the columns supporting the Temple). Since the sandal of the foot fragment bears the symbolic depiction ofZeus'thunderbolt, the statue is thought to have been a smaller version of theStatue of Zeus at Olympia.^[47][48]

Due to the lack of proper stones for sculptural work in the area of Ai-Khanoum, unbakedclay andstucco modeled on a wooden frame were often used, a technique which would become widespread in Central Asia and the East, especially inBuddhist art. In some cases, only the hands and feet would be made in marble.

In India, only a few Hellenistic sculptural remains have been found, mainly small items in the excavations of Sirkap.

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  Sculpture of an old man. Ai-Khanoum, 2nd century BC.
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  Close-up of the same statue.
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  Frieze of a naked man wearing achlamys. Ai-Khanoum, 2nd century BC.
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  Hellenistic gargoyle. Ai-Khanoum, 2nd century BC.

A variety of artefacts of Hellenistic style, often with Persian influence, were also excavated at Ai-Khanoum, such as a round medallion plate describing the goddessCybele on a chariot, in front of a fire altar, and under a depiction ofHelios, a fully preserved bronze statue ofHerakles, various golden serpentine arm jewellery and earrings, a toilet tray representing a seatedAphrodite, a mold representing a bearded and diademed middle-aged man. Various artefacts of daily life are also clearly Hellenistic:sundials, ink wells, tableware. An almost life-sized dark green glassphallus with a small owl on the back side and other treasures are said to have been discovered at Ai-Khanoum, possibly along with a stone with an inscription, which was not recovered. The artefacts have now been returned to theKabul Museum after several years in Switzerland by Paul Bucherer-Dietschi, Director of the Swiss Afghanistan Institute.^[49]

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  Bronze Herakles statuette. Ai-Khanoum. 2nd century BC.
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  Bracelet with horned female busts. Ai-Khanoum, 2nd century BC.
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  Stone recipients from Ai-Khanoum. 3rd-2nd century BC.
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  Imprint from a mold found in Ai-Khanoum. 3rd-2nd century BC.

Some traces remain of the presence of the Kushans in the areas ofBactria andSogdiana. Archaeological structures are known inTakht-I-Sangin,Surkh Kotal (a monumental temple), and in the palace ofKhalchayan. Various sculptures and friezes are known, representing horse-riding archers, and, significantly, men withartificially deformed skulls, such as the Kushan prince of Khalchayan (a practice well attested in nomadic Central Asia).^[50]

Kushan art at Khalchayan
(1st century BC)

Head of aYuezhi prince (Khalchayan palace,Uzbekistan).^[51][52]

Head of aSaka warrior, as a defeated enemy of the Yuezhi, Khalchayan.^[53][54][55]

The art ofKhalchayan of the end of the 2nd–1st century BC is probably one of the first known manifestations of Kushan art.^[56] It is ultimately derived fromHellenistic art, and possibly from the art of the cities ofAi-Khanoum andNysa.^[56] At Khalchayan, rows of in-the-roundterracotta statues showed Kushan princes in dignified attitudes, while some of the sculptural scenes are thought to depict the Kushans fighting against theSakas.^[57] The Yuezis are shown with a majestic demeanour, whereas the Sakas are typically represented with side-whiskers, displaying expressive and sometimes grotesque features.^[57]

According to Benjamin Rowland, the styles and ethnic type visible in Kalchayan already anticipate the characteristics of the laterArt of Gandhara and may even have been at the origin of its development.^[56] Rowland particularly draws attention to the similarity of the ethnic types represented at Khalchayan and in the art of Gandhara, and also in the style of portraiture itself.^[56] For example, Rowland find a great proximity betweenthe famous head of a Yuezhi prince from Khalchayan, and the head of GandharanBodhisattvas, giving the example ofthe Gandharan head of a Bodhisattva in thePhiladelphia Museum of Art.^[56] The similarity of the Gandhara Bodhisattva with the portrait of the Kushan rulerHeraios is also striking.^[56] According to Rowland the Bactrian art of Khalchayan thus survived for several centuries through its influence in the art of Gandhara, thanks to the patronage of theKushans.^[56]

The Kushans apparently favoured royal portraiture, as can be seen in their coins and their dynastic sculptures.^[58] A monumental sculpture of KingKanishka I has been found inMathura in northern India, which is characterized by its frontality and martial stance, as he holds firmly his sword and a mace.^[58] His heavy coat and riding boots are typically nomadic Central Asian, and are way too heavy for the warm climate of India.^[58] His coat is decorated by hundreds of pearls, which probably symbolize his wealth.^[58] His grandiose regnal title is inscribed in theBrahmi script: "The Great King, King of Kings, Son of God, Kanishka".^[59][58]

As the Kushans progressively adapted to life in India, their dress progressively became lighter, and representation less frontal and more natural, although they retained characteristic elements of their nomadic dress, such as the trousers and boots, the heavy tunics, and heavy belts.

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  Early Kushan rulerHeraios (1–30 AD), from his coinage.
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  Figures in the embroidered carpets of theNoin-Ula burial site, made in Bactria and proposed to represent Yuezhis (1st century BC – 1st century AD).^[60][61][62]
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  Kushan worshiper with deityZeus/Serapis/Ohrmazd,Bactria, 3rd century AD.^[63]
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  Kushan men in caftan and boots, atFayaz Tepe
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  Painting of a Kushan ruler (probablyHuvishka, seated) and attendants, Bactria, 74–258 AD.^[64]
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  Buddhist mural inKara Tepe, 2nd–4th century AD.
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  Buddhist pillar capital fromSurkh Kotal, with central Buddha figure.

TheKushano-Sasanian Kingdom (also called "Kushanshas" KΟÞANΟ ÞAΟKoshano Shao inBactrian^[65]) is a historiographic term used by modern scholars^[66] to refer to a branch of theSasanian Persians who established their rule inBactria and in northwesternIndian subcontinent (present dayPakistan) during the 3rd and 4th centuries AD at the expense of the decliningKushans. They captured the provinces ofSogdiana,Bactria andGandhara from theKushans in 225 AD.^[67] The Kushano-Sassanids traded goods such assilverware andtextiles depicting the Sassanid emperors engaged in hunting or administering justice. The example ofSassanid art was influential on Kushan art, and this influence remained active for several centuries in northwest South Asia.

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  Kushano-Sasanian footed cup with medallion, 3rd-4th century AD, Bactria,Metropolitan Museum of Art.^[68]
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  Possible Kushano-Sasanian plate, excavated inRawalpindi,Pakistan, 350–400 AD.^[69]British Museum 124093.^[70][71]
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  Terracotta head of a male figure, Kushano-Sasanian period, Gandhara region, 4th–5th century AD

TheHuns, anomadic people, lived inCentral Asia, theCaucasus, andEastern Europe between the 4th and 6th centuries AD. The nomadic nature of Hun society means that they have left very little in the archaeological record.^[72] Archaeological finds have produced a large number of cauldrons that have (since the work of Paul Reinecke in 1896) been identified as having been produced by the Huns.^[73] Although typically described as "bronze cauldrons", the cauldrons are often made of copper, which is generally of poor quality.^[74] Maenchen-Helfen lists 19 known finds of Hunnish cauldrons from all over Central and Eastern Europe and Western Siberia.^[75] They come in various shapes, and are sometimes found together with vessels of various other origins.^[76]

Both ancient sources and archaeological finds from graves confirm that the Huns wore elaborately decorated golden or gold-plateddiadems.^[77] Maenchen-Helfen lists a total of six known Hunnish diadems.^[78] Hunnic women seem to have worn necklaces and bracelets of mostly imported beads of various materials as well.^[79] The later common early medieval practice of decorating jewelry and weapons with gemstones appears to have originated with the Huns.^[80] They are also known to have made small mirrors of an originally Chinese type, which often appear to have been intentionally broken when placed into a grave.^[81]

Archaeological finds indicate that the Huns wore gold plaques as ornaments on their clothing, as well as imported glass beads.^[82] Ammianus reports that they wore clothes made of linen or the furs of marmots and leggings of goatskin.^[83]

Kim sees the Huns as incorporating multiple homogeneous artistic styles of thesteppe peoples and as influential in developing the future art of Europe.^[84]

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  A Hunnishcauldron
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  Detail of Hunnish gold and garnet bracelet, 5th century,Walters Art Museum
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  A Hunnish oval openwork fibula set with a carnelian and decorated with a geometric pattern of gold wire, 4th century,Walters Art Museum

TheKidarites, or "Kidara Huns",^[87] were a dynasty that ruledBactria and adjoining parts of Central Asia and South Asia in the 4th and 5th centuries. The Kidarites belonged to a complex of peoples known collectively in India as theHuna, and in Europe as theChionites (from theIranian namesXwn/Xyon), and may even be considered as identical to the Chionites.^[88] The 5th centuryByzantine historianPriscus called them Kidarites Huns, or "Huns who are Kidarites".^[89][90] The Huna/ Xionite tribes are often linked, albeit controversially, to theHuns who invaded Eastern Europe during a similar period. They are entirely different from theHephthalites, who replaced them about a century later.^[90]

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  Kidaritetamga symbol () appears to the right of the standing king.Balkh mint.
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  Silver bowl, showing anAlchon horseman
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  Two Kidarite princes on theHephthalite bowl

Murals fromDilberjin Tepe, thought to represent early Hephthalites.^{[91][92][93][94]} The ruler wears a radiate crown which is comparable to the crown of the king on the"Yabghu of the Hephthalites" seal.^[95]

TheHephthalites (Bactrian:ηβοδαλο,romanized: Ebodalo),^[96] sometimes called the "White Huns",^[97][98] were a people who lived inCentral Asia during the 5th to 8th centuries. They existed as an Empire, the "Imperial Hephthalites", and were militarily important from 450 AD, when they defeated theKidarites, to 560 AD, date of their defeat to combinedFirst Turkic Khaganate andSasanian Empire forces.^[99][100]

The Hepthalites appears in several mural paintings in the area ofTokharistan, especially in banquet scenes atBalalyk tepe and as donors to the Buddha in the ceiling painting of the 35-meter Buddha at theBuddhas of Bamiyan.^[101] Several of the figures in these paintings have a characteristic appearance, with belted jackets with a unique lapel of their tunic being folded on the right side, a style which became popular under the Hephthalites,^[102] the cropped hair, the hair accessories, their distinctive physionomy and their round beardless faces.^[103][104] The figures at Bamiyan must represent the donors and potentates who supported the building of the monumental giant Buddha.^[103] These remarkable paintings participate "to the artistic tradition of the Hephthalite ruling classes ofTukharistan".^[101][105]

The paintings related to the Hephthalites have often been grouped under the appellation of "Tokharistan school of art",^[106] or the "Hephthalite stage in the History of Central Asia Art".^[107] The paintings ofTavka Kurgan, of very high quality, also belong to this school of art, and are closely related to other paintings of the Tokharistan school such asBalalyk tepe, in the depiction of clothes, and especially in the treatment of the faces.^[108]

This "Hephthalite period" in art, with the caftans with a triangular collar folded on the right, the particular cropped hairstyle, the crowns with crescents, have been found in many of the areas historically occupied and ruled by the Hephthalites, inSogdia,Bamiyan (modernAfghanistan), or inKucha in theTarim Basin (modernXinjiang,China). This points to a "political and cultural unification ofCentral Asia" with similar artistic styles and iconography, under the rule of the Hephthalites.^[109]

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  The banquet scenes in the murals ofBalalyk Tepe show the life of the Hephthalite ruling class ofTokharistan.^{[110][104][105][101]}
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  Banquet scene,Balalyk Tepe
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  Probable Hephthalite royal couple in the murals of theBuddhas of Bamiyan circa 600 AD (the 38-meter Buddha they decorate is carbon dated to 544–595 AD).^[111]
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  Stamp seal with a bearded figure in Sasanian dress, wearing thekulāf denoting nobility and officials; and a figure with radiate crown,^[112] both with royal ribbons. Attributed to the Hephthalites,^[113] and recently dated to the 5th–6th century AD.^[114]Stamp seal (BM 119999),British Museum.

Smaller 38-meter "Eastern" Buddha

Larger 55-meter "Western" Buddha

The Buddhas of Bamiyan (shown before 2001), werecarbon-dated to 544–595 AD and 591–644 AD respectively.^[115][116]

The Buddhist art of Bamiyan covers a period from the early centuries of the Common Era, culminating with the building of theBuddhas of Bamiyan in the 6th-century AD.^[117] monumental statues ofGautama Buddha carved into the side of a cliff in theBamyan valley of centralAfghanistan, 130 kilometres (81 mi) northwest ofKabul at an elevation of 2,500 metres (8,200 ft). Carbon dating of the structural components of the Buddhas has determined that the smaller 38 m (125 ft) "Eastern Buddha" was built around 570 AD, and the larger 55 m (180 ft) "Western Buddha" was built around 618 AD.^[111][116]

The statues represented a later evolution of the classic blended style ofGandhara art.^[118] The statues consisted of the male Salsal ("light shines through the universe") and the (smaller) female Shamama ("Queen Mother"), as they were called by the locals.^[119] The main bodies were hewn directly from thesandstone cliffs, but details were modeled in mud mixed with straw, coated withstucco. This coating, practically all of which wore away long ago, was painted to enhance the expressions of the faces, hands, and folds of the robes; the larger one was paintedcarmine red and the smaller one was painted multiple colors.^[120] The lower parts of the statues' arms were constructed from the same mud-straw mix supported on wooden armatures. It is believed that the upper parts of their faces were made from great wooden masks or casts. The rows of holes that can be seen in photographs held wooden pegs that stabilized the outer stucco.

The Buddhas are surrounded by numerous caves and surfaces decorated with paintings.^[121] It is thought that the period of florescence was from the 6th to 8th century AD, until the onset ofIslamic invasions.^[121] These works of art are considered as an artistic synthesis ofBuddhist art andGupta art from India, with influences from theSasanian Empire and theByzantine Empire, as well as thecountry of Tokharistan.^[121]

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  Buddha, Cave 404 in Bamiyan.
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  Sun-GodSurya on his chariot
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  Probable King of Bamiyan, inSasanian style, in the niche of the 38 meters Buddha, next to the Sun God, Bamiyan.^{[103][122][123]}
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  Western Buddha, Niche, ceiling, east section E1 and E2.^[124]

From the 3rd century AD, theTarim Basin became a centre for the development of Buddhist art, and a major relay for theSilk Road transmission of Buddhism.Buddhist texts were translated into Chinese by Kuchean monks, the most famous of whom wasKumārajīva (344–412/5).^[125][126]

Numerous Buddhist caves cover the northern side of the Tarim Basin, such as theKizil Caves consisting in over 236 such temples. Their murals date from the 3rd to the 8th century.^[127] The caves of Kizil are the earlier of their type in China, and their model was later adopted in the construction of Buddhist caves further east.^[128] Other famous sites nearby are theKizilgaha caves, theKumtura Caves,Subashi Temple or theSimsim caves.^[129][130]

In theKizil Caves appear portraits of Royal families, composed of the King, Queen and young Prince. They are accompanied by monks, and men in caftan.^[131]

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  The mural, "Dance of princess Chandraprabha", with frames probably derived fromRoman art of the 1st century AD.^[132] Treasure Cave C (Cave 83). MIK III 8443.
• 
  Painting of a cowherd listening to a sermon of the Buddha, from the right wall of the main hall. Cave of the Statues.14C date: 406-425 AD.^[133]
• 
  Maitreya in the lunette over the entrance of Maya Cave, 224,Kizil Caves.Dahlem Museum

The influence ofChinese art started to appear in the eastern part of the Tarim Basin, as Buddhist art was spreading eastward. These Chinese characteristics appear in the art of theBezeklik Caves or theDunhuang Caves.

• 
  Praṇidhi scene, temple 9 (Cave 20), includingSogdian merchants.Bezeklik Caves.^[134]
• 
  Details from Praṇidhi scene No. 5. Central Asian and Asian Buddhist monks.^[134]
• 
  Bodhisattva leading a ladydonor towards the Pure Lands. Painting on silk (Library Cave), Late Tang.Mogao Caves
• 
  Figure ofMaitreya Buddha in cave 275 fromNorthern Liang (397–439), one of the earliest caves. The crossed ankle figure with a three-disk crown shows influence fromKushan art.Mogao Caves

TheAfrasiab paintings of the 6th to 7th centuries in Samarkand, Uzbekistan offer a rare surviving example of Sogdian art. The paintings, showing scenes of daily life and events such as the arrival of foreign ambassadors, are located within the ruins of aristocratic homes. It is unclear if any of these palatial residences served as the official palace of the rulers of Samarkand.^[135] The oldest surviving Sogdian monumental wall murals date to the 5th century and are thePenjikent murals, Tajikistan.^[136] In addition to revealing aspects of their social and political lives, Sogdian art has also been instrumental in aiding historians' understanding of their religious beliefs. For instance, it is clear that Buddhist Sogdians incorporated some of their ownIranian deities into their version of theBuddhist Pantheon. AtZhetysu, Sogdiangilded bronze plaques on aBuddhist temple show a pairing of a male and female deity with outstretched hands holding a miniaturecamel, a common non-Buddhist image similarly found in the paintings of Samarkand and Panjakent.^[137]

• 
  Afrasyab Chinese Embassy (left), carryingsilk and a string ofsilkworm cocoons, and Turkish delegates (right), recognizable by their long plaits.^[138][139]
• 
  Ambassadors fromChaganian (central figure, inscription of the neck), andChach (modernTashkent) to kingVarkhuman ofSamarkand. 648-651 AD, Afrasiyab murals, Samarkand.^{[140][141][142]} The delegate to the right has aSimurgh design on his dress.^[143]
• 
  Rostam, with an elongated skull,Penjikent murals
• 
  TheAnikova dish: aNestorian Christian plate with decoration of a besiegedJericho, by Sogdian artists underKarluk dominion,Semirechye. 9th-10th century, derived form 8th century material related toPenjikent.^{[144][145][146]}

Many objects suggesting exchanges with Central Asia have been found, especially in Northern Wei tombs.Left: Model of a Silk Road camel driver, Northern Wei period.Right: aKushano-Sasanian plate with hunting scene, from theNorthern Wei tomb ofFeng Hetu (封和突, aXianbei military official, 438–501) in Xiaozhan village,Datong.Shanxi Museum.^[147][148]

From the 4th to the 6th centuries AD, theNorthern dynasties (389–589 AD) of China, ruled by the nomadicXianbei, engaged in trade with Central Asia, often through the intermediary of Sogdian traders. Northern Wei art came under influence of Indian and Central Asian traditions through the mean of these trade routes. This included the influence of Buddhism, which flourished under the Northern dynasties.^[149] Numerous Central Asian works of art, especially decorated silverware and jewelry, have been found in the tombs of theNorthern Wei, theNorthern Qi or theNorthern Zhou.^{[150][151][152]}

• 
  Gilt silver bowl fromBactria,Northern Wei tomb (439-534 AD).^[153]
• 
  A ewer with Greco-Roman scenes from the tomb ofNorthern Zhou generalLi Xian, 569 AD.^[150][151] It was probably made inBactria.^[152]
• 
  Gem-inlaid gold ring of Central Asian design,tomb of Xu Xianxiu, 571 AD.^[154][155]

TheGokturks destroyed theRouran Khaganate and overran theHephthalite Empire to became the main power in Central Asia from the time of theFirst Turkic Khaganate and theWestern Turks, circa 560 to 742 AD. Several later Turkic-speaking empires would later develop, founded by unrelated tribes.

• 
  Silver artifacts from Khakassia, associated wjth theYenisei Kyrgyz people.^[156]
• 
  Warrior statue; 8th–10th century; from theKosh-Agach region (Altai);Hermitage (Sankt Petersburg, Russia)
• 
  Shoroon Bumbagar tomb mural,Göktürk, 7th century CE.^{[157][158][159][160]}
• 
  An earlyTurk Shahi ruler named Sri Ranasrikari "The Lord who brings excellence through war" (Brahmi script). In this realistic portrait, he wears the Turkic double-lapelcaftan. Late 7th to early 8th century AD.^{[161][162][163]}

[800]

SIND

UYGHUR KHAGANATE

GURJARA-
PRATIHARAS

RASHTRA-
KUTAS

PALA
EMPIRE

CHAM-
PA

NAN-
ZHAO

TURK
SHAHIS

TANG
DYNASTY

SILLA

Khitans

Jurchens

Tungus

KARLUK
YABGHU

Tatars

CHENLA

DVARA-
VATI

SRIVIJAYA

Kyrgyzs

Paleo-Siberians

Samoyeds

Kimeks

Tanguts

Shatuos

ABBASID CALIPHATE

KHAZAR
KHAGANATE

BYZANTINE
EMPIRE

OGHUZ YABGUS

TIBETAN
EMPIRE

class=notpageimage|

Main Asian politiesc. 800

TheMuslim conquest of Transoxiana was the 7th and 8th centuryconquests, byUmayyad andAbbasidArabs, ofTransoxiana, the land between theOxus (Amu Darya) andJaxartes (Syr Darya) rivers, a part ofCentral Asia that today includes all or parts ofUzbekistan,Tajikistan,Kazakhstan, andKyrgyzstan. This started a period of prosperity, from the 8th to the 14th century, known as theIslamic Golden Age, which also affected the arts of Central Asia.

Islamic art diffused in Central Asia with the rule ofUmayyad andAbbasidArabs. Buildings following Islamic standard were built throughout the land, such as the Abbasid mosque ofAfrasiab inSamarkand circa 750–825 CE.^[164]

• 
  Decorated niche from the Abbasid mosque ofAfrasiab, Samarkand, 750-825 CE.^[164]
• 
  Folio sheet from a Qur'an, found in the sanctuary of Katta Langar, south of Samarkand, first half of the 8th century.
• 
  Coran from Katta Langar, decorative band (detail)

Abbasid power finally waned, and local Iranian dynasties were established, creating anIranian Intermezzo, blending Islamic art with Persian culture, during the 9th and 10th centuries. The Iranian dynasties corresponding to the Iranian Intermezzo are theTahirids,Saffarids,Sajids,Samanids,Ziyarids,Buyids andSallarids.^[165]

Artistic florescence occurred especially during the period of theSamanid Empire (819–999). The empire was centred inKhorasan andTransoxiana; at its greatest extent encompassing modern-dayAfghanistan, large parts ofIran,Tajikistan,Turkmenistan,Uzbekistan,Kyrgyzstan, parts ofKazakhstan andPakistan.

• 
  TheSamanid Mausoleum, the burial site ofIsmail Samani, inBukhara, 10th century.
• 
  Great decorated panel from a Samanid residential complex, 9th-10th century,Afrasiab,Samarkand.^[166]
• 
  "Simurgh platter", from Iran, Samanids dynasty. 9th-10th century. Islamic Art Museum (Museum für Islamische Kunst), Berlin
• 
  Example of figural earthenware ceramics from Samanid period. FromNishapur,Iran, 10th century CE.

TheBūyids, also an Iranian dynasty, became great patrons of art and architecture, as a way to enhance their prestige and to compensate for their humble origins. Through art, they endeavoured to present themselves as the heirs to the pre-Islamic tradition of kingship in Iran.^[167]

• 
  Medallion of Buyid amir'Adud al-Dawla (r.936–983).
• 
  Gold ewer of the Buyid Period, mentioning Buyid rulerIzz al-Dawla Bakhtiyar ibn Mu'izz al-Dawla, 966-977 CE, Iran.^[168]
• 
  Buyid silk in pseudo-Sasanian style.
• 
  Rosewater bottle, Buyid art, early 12th century, Iran. Freer Gallery of Art.^[169]

With the rise of Turkic dynasties in Central Asia, Persian art started to evolve to adapt to the tastes of the new Turkic ruling class: in paintings, the composition of narrative scenes remains unchanged, but nomadic clothing, physical traits and power symbols (such as the bow and arrow) are now depicted. From the mid-12th century, beauty standards too evolve, with round and serene faces with almond-shaped eyes becoming uniquitous in artistic representations.^[170]

A palatial structure dating to theKara-Khanid Khanate (840–1212) was recently discovered in Afrasiab, complete with numerous decorative paintings dating to circa 1200.^[173] This period of artistic florescence would end in 1212, when the Kara-Khanids in Samarkand were conquered by theKwarazmians. Soon however,Khwarezmia was invaded by the earlyMongol Empire and its rulerGenghis Khandestroyed the once vibrant cities of Bukhara and Samarkand.^[175] However, in 1370, Samarkand saw a revival as the capital of theTimurid Empire.^[176]

• 
  Kara-Khanid bands of inscription with running animals, Afrasiab, circa 1200 CE.^[177]
• 
  Bowl with bird.Afrasiab (Samarkand), 11th century.^[178]
• 
  Bowl with bird.Afrasiab (Samarkand), 11th century.^[179]

TheGhaznavid dynasty was aPersianate^[180]Muslim dynasty ofTurkicmamluk origin,^{[181][a][182]} at their greatest extent ruling large parts ofIran,Afghanistan, much ofTransoxiana and the northwestIndian subcontinent from 977 to 1186.^[183]

• 
  Ghaznavid portrait of a characteristically Turkic individual, Palace ofLashkari Bazar.^[184]
• 
  Ghaznavid sculpted architecture, marble,Ghazni, 12th century AD
• 
  Vessel with bull's head spout, Ghaznavid dynasty, late 11th to early 12th century
• 
  Ghaznavid sculpted architecture, marble,Ghazni, 12–13th century AD

TheSeljuk Empire (1037–1194 AD) was a high medieval Turko-Persian Sunni Muslim empire, originating from the Qiniq branch ofOghuz Turks. At its greatest extent, the Seljuk Empire controlled a vast area stretching from westernAnatolia and theLevant to theHindu Kush in the east, and fromCentral Asia to thePersian Gulf in the south.

• 
  Mausoleum of Sultan Sanjar inMerv, Turkmenistan.
• 
  Seljuk-era art:GhuridEwer fromHerat,Afghanistan, dated 1180–1210 AD. Brass worked in repousse and inlaid with silver andbitumen.British Museum.
• 
  Princely figure related to the Seljuq sultan or one of his local vassals or successors, Seljuk period, Iran, late 12th–13th century.^[185][186]
• 
  Mina'i bowl signed byAbu Zayd al-Kashani, dated 1187 CE, Iran.^[187]

TheKhwarezmian Empire was the last Turco-Persian Empire before theMongol invasion of Central Asia. Finely decoratedMina'i ceramics were mainly produced inKashan, in the decades leading up to theMongol invasion of Persia in 1219, at a time when the Khwarazmian Empire ruled the area, initially under the suzerainty of theSeljuk Empire, and independently from 1190.^[189] Some of the "most iconic" productions of stonepaste vessels can be attributed to the Khwarazmian rulers, after the end of Seljuk domination (the Seljuk Empire itself ended in 1194).^[190] In general, it is considered that Mina'i ware was manufactured from the late 12th century and the early 13th century, and dated Mina’i wares range from 1186 to 1224.^[191]

• 
  Horsemen,Mina'i ware, early 13th century, Iran.^[192]
• 
  Mina'i Bowl with horserider, early 13th century, Iran.^[193]
• 
  Mina'i Lobed bowl, early 13th century, Iran.^[194]

The Mongols underGenghis Khan invaded Central Asia in the early 13th century. The unifiedMongol Empire was succeeded by theChagatai Khanate,^[196] aMongol and laterTurkicizedkhanate.^[197][198] that comprised the lands ruled byChagatai Khan, second son ofGenghis Khan and his descendants and successors. At its height in the late 13th century, the khanate extended from theAmu Darya south of theAral Sea to theAltai Mountains in the border of modern-day Mongolia and China, roughly corresponding to the defunctQara Khitai Empire.^[199] Initially the rulers of the Chagatai Khanate recognized the supremacy of the Great Khan,^[200] but by the reign ofKublai Khan,Ghiyas-ud-din Baraq no longer obeyed the emperor's orders.

During the mid-14th century, the Chagatais lostTransoxania to theTimurids circa 1370. After the Mongol invasions, a new period of prosperity thus started, theTimurid Renaissance. After conquering a city, the Timurids commonly spared the lives of the local artisans and deported them to the Timurid capital ofSamarkand. After the Timurids conqueredPersia in the early 15th century, many Persian artistic traits became interwoven with existing Mongol art. Timur made Samarkand one of the centers ofIslamic art and remained a subject of interest toIbn Khaldun.^[201] In the mid 15th century the empire moved its capital toHerat, which became a focal point for Timurid art. As with Samarkand, Persian artisans and intellectuals soon established Herat as a center for arts and culture. Soon, many of the Timurids adoptedPersian culture as their own.^[202]

• 
  Mausoleum of Khoja Ahmed Yasawi in Hazrat-e Turkestan,Kazakhstan.Timurid architecture consisted ofPersian art.
• 
  Akhangan's tomb, whereGawhar Shad's sister Gowhartāj is buried. The architecture is a fine example of the Timurid era in Persia.
• 
  Façade ofBibi Khanym Mosque, Samarkand.

TheKhanate of Bukhara was a state centered onUzbekistan from the second quarter of the 16th century to the late 18th century.Bukhara became the capital of the short-lived Shaybanid empire during the reign of Ubaydallah Khan (1533–1540). The khanate reached its greatest extent and influence under its penultimateShaybanid ruler, the scholarlyAbdullah Khan II (r. 1557–1598). In the 17th and 18th centuries, the Khanate was ruled by theJanid dynasty (Astrakhanids or Toqay Timurids). They were the lastGenghisid descendants to rule Bukhara.

• 
  Chor-Bakr memorial complex, built byMuhammad Shaybani circa 1510,Bukhara
• 
  Imamkuli-khan
• 
  TheSher-Dor Madrasa, built between 1619 and 1636 by Governor of SamarkandYalangtoʻsh Bakhodir, Khanate of Bukhara
• 
  Suzani (ceremonial hanging); late 1700s; cotton; 92 × 63; fromUzbekistan;Indianapolis Museum of Art (US)

Central Asia fell largely under the control of Russia in the 19th century, following theRussian conquest of Central Asia.Russian Turkestan (1867–1917) was the western part ofTurkestan within theRussian Empire'sCentral Asian territories, and was administered as akrai orgovernor-generalship. It comprised the oasis region to the south of theKazakh Steppe, but not the protectorates of theEmirate of Bukhara and theKhanate of Khiva. As a consequence of Russian colonization, European fine arts – painting, sculpture and graphics – have developed in Central Asia.

• 
  The Emir of Bukhara and the notables of the city watch how the heads of Russian soldiers are impaled on poles. Samarkand
• 
  Russian troops takingSamarkand in 1868
• 
  They Attack Unaware

Soviet Central Asia refers to the section ofCentral Asia formerly controlled by theSoviet Union, as well as the time period of Soviet administration (1918–1991). Central Asian SSRs declared independence in 1991. In terms of area, it is nearly synonymous withRussian Turkestan, the name for the region during theRussian Empire. The first years of the Soviet regime saw the appearance of modernism, which took inspiration from the Russian avant-garde movement. Until the 1980s, Central Asian arts had developed along with general tendencies of Soviet arts.

• 
  Urging peasants to speed up cotton production – Russian and Uzbek, Tashkent, 1920s
• 
  "Female Muslims- The tsar, beys and khans took your rights away" – Azeri, Baku, 1921 (Mardjani).
• 
  Poster of 3 different men with the word "friendship" underneath. Central Asia
• 
  Emblem of theTurkmen SSR.

In the 90s, arts of the region underwent some significant changes. Institutionally speaking, some fields of arts were regulated by the birth of the art market, some stayed as representatives of official views, while many were sponsored by international organizations. The years of 1990–2000 were times for the establishment of contemporary arts. In the region, many important international exhibitions are taking place, Central Asian art is represented in European and American museums, and the Central Asian Pavilion at the Venice Biennale has been organized since 2005.

• Architecture of Central Asia

• Along the ancient silk routes: Central Asian art from the West Berlin State Museums, an exhibition catalog from The Metropolitan Museum of Art (fully available online as PDF)

• Central Asian art

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