| Gracile capuchin monkey[1] | |
|---|---|
 | |
| Panamanian white-headed capuchin (Cebus imitator) | |
Scientific classification | |
| Domain: | Eukaryota |
| Kingdom: | Animalia |
| Phylum: | Chordata |
| Class: | Mammalia |
| Order: | Primates |
| Suborder: | Haplorhini |
| Infraorder: | Simiiformes |
| Family: | Cebidae |
| Subfamily: | Cebinae |
| Genus: | Cebus Erxleben, 1777 |
| Type species | |
| Simia capucina[2] | |
| Species | |
Cebus aequatorialis | |
Gracile capuchin monkeys arecapuchin monkeys in the genusCebus. At one time all capuchin monkeys were included within the genusCebus. In 2011, Jessica Lynch Alfaroet al. proposed splitting the genus between therobust capuchin monkeys, such as thetufted capuchin, and the gracile capuchins.[1] The gracile capuchins retain the genus nameCebus, while the robust species have been transferred toSapajus.[1][3]
Following Groves (2005), taxa within the genusCebus include:[4]
Subsequent revisions have split some of these into additional species:[5]
The placement of theTrinidad white-fronted capuchin is controversial; theAmerican Society of Mammalogists classifies it as conspecific withC. brunneus based on a 2012 study later found to be flawed, while theIUCN Red List classifies it as a distinct species (Cebus triniatis) due to debate over the aforementioned study, and the ITIS classifies it as a subspecies ofC. albifrons, also due to debate over the aforementioned study.[6][7][8][9]
Philip Hershkovitz andWilliam Charles Osman Hill publishedtaxonomies of thecapuchin monkeys in 1949 and 1960, respectively.[1] These taxonomies established four species of capuchin monkey in thegenusCebus. One of those species,Cebus apella, is a robust capuchin and is now included in the genusSapajus. The other threeCebus species included in that taxonomy were the gracile capuchin speciesCebus albifrons,Cebus nigrivittatus and thetype speciesCebus capucinus.[3]Cebus nigrivittatus was subsequently renamedCebus olivaceus.[3][10]Cebus kaapori had been considered asubspecies ofC. olivaceus butGroves (2001 and 2005) and Silva (2001) regarded it as a separate species.[11]
The gracile capuchins, like all capuchins, are members of the familyCebidae, which also includes the squirrel monkeys. The evolution of the squirrel monkeys and capuchin monkeys is believed to have diverged about 13 million years ago.[1] According to genetic studies led by Lynch Alfaro in 2011, the gracile and robust capuchins diverged approximately 6.2 million years ago.[1][3] Lynch Alfaro suspects that the divergence was triggered by the creation of theAmazon River, which separated the monkeys in theAmazon north of the Amazon River, which evolved into the gracile capuchins, from those in theAtlantic Forest south of the river, which evolved into the robust capuchins.[1][3]
Gracile capuchins have longer limbs relative to their body size compared with robust capuchins.[1] Gracile capuchins also have rounder skulls and other differences in skull morphology.[1] Gracile capuchins lack certain adaptations for opening hard nuts which robust capuchins have.[1] These include differences in the teeth and jaws, and the lack of asagittal crest.[1] Exterior differences include the fact that, although some females have tufts on their head (Humboldt's white-fronted capuchin andGuianan weeper capuchin), no male gracile capuchin has tufts, while all robust capuchins have tufts.[1] Also, no gracile capuchins havebeards.[1]
Gracile capuchin monkeys have a wide range overCentral America and north and north-westSouth America. The Panamanian white-headed capuchin is the most northern species, occurring in Central America fromHonduras toPanama.[5] The Colombian white-headed capuchin also has a northern distribution inColombia andEcuador west of theAndes.[5] The white-fronted capuchin is found over large portions ofColombia,Peru and westernBrazil, as well as into southernVenezuela and northernBolivia.[12] The weeper capuchin is found over much of Venezuela and overThe Guianas, as well as part of northern Brazil.[10] The Kaapori capuchin has a range that is disjoint from the other gracile capuchins, living in northern Brazil within the states ofPará andMaranhão.[11] The only species to inhabit theCaribbean islands is the Trinidad white-fronted capuchin.
Some gracile capuchins are known touse tools. These includewhite-headed capuchins rubbing secretions from leaves over their bodies, using leaves as gloves when rubbing fruit or caterpillar secretions and using tools as a probe.[1][13]White-fronted capuchins have been observed using leaves as a cup to drink water.[13]
Intrasexual selection, or male-male competition, occurs when males invoke contests in order to gain the opportunity to reproduce with a female and maximize their reproductive success.[14] Often males are adorned with weaponry, which can be used in order to increase their chances of winning contests for possible mates.[15] In the genus Cebus, there is a large amount of dimorphism in canine size between males and females.[15] Canines are hypothesized to be larger in males because canine dimorphism is generally correlated to male-male competition.[15] In thewedge-capped capuchin there is a larger amount of canine dimorphism compared to thewhite-faced capuchin and thewhite-fronted capuchin.[15] The difference in canine dimorphism between these species can be correlated to the differences in social structure of these three groups. The alpha male of the wedge-capped capuchin tends to monopolize mating, therefore engaging in more male-male competition, while in the white-faced capuchin and in the white-fronted capuchin the alpha male does not monopolize mating and allows subordinate males to mate with females.[15] While not much is known about theKaapori capuchin, due to its low population size, it is likely it would possess more canine dimorphism, like the wedge-capped capuchin, because of its similar social structure with a monopolizing alpha male and peripheral subordinate males.[16]
If a female is presented an opportunity to copulate with a male she will evaluate both the costs and benefits of that male. Females can obtain direct benefits from males she mates with, where the female gains an instant benefit from the male to herself.[17] Direct benefits that would apply to females of the genusCebus would include; vigilance from males,[18] protection from predators and conspecifics,[17] and increased resources.[19] Females can also benefit indirectly from males, in the form of phenotypic and genotypic benefits to her offspring[20] as well as male protection of those offspring.[17] Alpha males are more fit, and therefore more likely, to provide direct and indirect benefits to the female compared to other subordinate males.[17] In the white-faced capuchin the alpha male fathers 70-90% of the offspring produced by females in his group.[17] It is hypothesized that females are mating with alpha males while they are ovulating and then mating with subordinate males after they are no longer conceptive.[17] Some female primates, like in the white-fronted capuchin, will mate will subordinate males while they are no longer conceptive in order to decrease the amount of resource competition and increase the amount of male protection for her offspring.[18]
Capuchin infants are born in analtricial state, which means they need a lot of parental care in order to survive.[21] The majority of parental care in the genusCebus is provided by the mother, but in the case of the wedge-capped capuchin, parental care is also provided by other conspecific females; this type of care is referred to asallomaternal care.[21] In the wedge-capped capuchin, the mother will provide the infant care for the first three months, however for the next three months the infant relies on the care of other females.[21] In agreement withkin selection theory, kin of the mother are more likely to provide care to the infant compared to other females in the group; siblings were four times as likely to provide infant care compared to other group females.[21] Male parental care is rare in the genusCebus, only in the white-headed capuchin is there some interaction between males and offspring.[22] In white-headed capuchins males will often investigate, or at least tolerate, their offspring.[22] Alpha males are also more likely to interact with their offspring than subordinate males.[22]
All gracile capuchin species except the Kaapori capuchin are rated as least concern by theInternational Union for Conservation of Nature.[23][10][12] The Kaapori capuchin is rated ascritically endangered.[11]
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