Aceasefire (also known as atruce),[1] also spelledcease-fire (theantonym of 'open fire'),[2] is a stoppage of awar in which each side agrees with the other to suspend aggressive actions, often due to mediation by a third party.[3][4] Ceasefires may be between state actors or involve non-state actors.[1]
Ceasefires may be declared as part of a formaltreaty but also as part of an informal understanding between opposing forces.[2] They may occur via mediation or otherwise as part of apeace process or be imposed byUnited Nations Security Council resolutions via Chapter VII of theUnited Nations Charter.[2] A ceasefire can be temporary with an intended end date or may be intended to last indefinitely. A ceasefire is distinct from anarmistice in that the armistice is a formal end to a war whereas a ceasefire may be a temporary stoppage.[5]
The immediate goal of a ceasefire is to stop violence but the underlying purposes of ceasefires vary. Ceasefires may be intended to meet short-term limited needs (such as providing humanitarian aid), manage a conflict to make it less devastating, or advance efforts to peacefully resolve a dispute.[1] An actor may not always intend for a ceasefire to advance the peaceful resolution of a conflict but instead give the actor an upper hand in the conflict (for example, by re-arming and repositioning forces or attacking an unsuspecting adversary), which createsbargaining problems that may make ceasefires less likely to be implemented and less likely to be durable if implemented.[3][1][6]
The durability of ceasefire agreements is affected by several factors, such as demilitarized zones, withdrawal of troops and third-party guarantees and monitoring (e.g.peacekeeping). Ceasefire agreements are more likely to be durable when they reduce incentives to attack, reduce uncertainty about the adversary's intentions, and when mechanisms are put in place to prevent accidents from spiraling into conflict.[3]
Ceasefire agreements are more likely to be reached when the costs of conflict are high and when the actors in a conflict have loweraudience costs.[7] Scholars emphasize that war termination is more likely to occur when actors have more information about each other, when actors can make credible commitments, and when the domestic political situation makes it possible for leaders to make war termination agreements without incurring domestic punishment.[8]
By one estimate, there were at least 2202 ceasefires across 66 countries in 109 civil conflicts over the period 1989–2020.[1]
Historically, the concept of a ceasefire existed at least by the time of the Middle Ages, when it was known as a'truce of God'.[9]
DuringWorld War I, on December 24, 1914, there was anunofficial ceasefire on theWestern Front asFrance, theUnited Kingdom, andGermany observedChristmas. There are accounts that claimed the unofficial ceasefire took place throughout the week leading to Christmas, and that British and German troops exchanged seasonal greetings and songs between their trenches.[10] The ceasefire was brief but spontaneous. Beginning when German soldiers litChristmas trees, it quickly spread up and down the Western Front.[11] One account described the development in the following words:
It was good to see the human spirit prevailed amongst all sides at the front, the sharing and fraternity. All was well until the higher echelons of command got to hear about the effect of the ceasefire, whereby their wrath ensured a return to hostilities.[12]
There was no peace treaty signed during theChristmas truce, and the war resumed after a few days.
TheKarachi Agreement of 1949 was signed by the military representatives of India and Pakistan, supervised by theUnited Nations Commission for India and Pakistan, establishing a cease-fire line inKashmir following theIndo-Pakistani War of 1947.[13]
On November 29, 1952, the USpresident-elect,Dwight D. Eisenhower, went to Korea to see how to end theKorean War. With theUN's acceptance ofIndia's proposed armistice, the ceasefire between theUN Command on the one side and theKorean People's Army (KPA) and thePeople's Volunteer Army (PVA) on the other took hold at approximately the38th parallel north. These parties signed theKorean Armistice Agreement on July 27, 1953,[14][15] but South Korean PresidentSyngman Rhee, who attacked the ceasefire proceedings, did not.[16] Upon agreeing to the ceasefire which called upon the governments of South Korea, theUnited States, North Korea andChina to participate in continued peace talks, the principalbelligerents of the war established theKorean Demilitarized Zone (DMZ) and it has since been patrolled by the jointRepublic of Korea Army, US, and UN Command on the one side and the KPA on the other. The war is considered to have ended at that point even though there still is no peace treaty.
On New Years Day, 1968,Pope Paul VI convincedSouth Vietnam and the United States to declare a 24-hour-truce. However, theViet Cong andNorth Vietnam did not adhere to the truce, and ambushed the 2nd Battalion,Republic of Vietnam Marine Division, 10 minutes after midnight inMỹ Tho. The Viet Cong would also attack aU.S. Army fire support base nearSaigon, causing more casualties.[17]
On January 15, 1973, US PresidentRichard Nixon ordered a ceasefire of the aerial bombings inNorth Vietnam. The decision came afterHenry Kissinger, theNational Security Advisor to the President, returned toWashington, D.C., fromParis, France, with a draft peace proposal. Combat missions continued inSouth Vietnam. By January 27, 1973, all parties of theVietnam War signed a ceasefire as a prelude to theParis Peace Accord.
AfterIraq was driven out ofKuwait by US-led coalition forces duringOperation Desert Storm, Iraq and theUN Security Council signed a ceasefire agreement on March 3, 1991.[18] Subsequently, throughout the 1990s, theU.N. Security Council passed numerous resolutions calling for Iraq to disarm itsweapons of mass destruction unconditionally and immediately. Because no peace treaty was signed after theGulf War, the war still remained in effect, including an alleged assassination attempt of former US PresidentGeorge H. W. Bush by Iraqi agents while on a visit to Kuwait;[citation needed]Iraq being bombed in June 1993 as a response, Iraqi forces firing on coalition aircraft patrolling theIraqi no-fly zones, US PresidentBill Clinton's bombing of Baghdad in 1998 duringOperation Desert Fox, and an earlier 1996 bombing of Iraq by the US duringOperation Desert Strike. The war remained in effect until 2003, when US and UK forcesinvaded Iraq and toppledSaddam Hussein's regime from power.
A UN-mediated ceasefire was agreed betweenIndia andPakistan, on 1 January 1949, ending theIndo-Pakistani War of 1947 (also called the 1947 Kashmir War). Fighting broke out between the two newly independent countries inKashmir in October 1947, with India intervening on behalf of the princely ruler of Kashmir, who had joined India, and Pakistan supporting the rebels. The fighting was limited to Kashmir, but, apprehensive that it might develop into a full-scale international war, India referred the matter to the UN Security Council under Article 35 of the UN Charter, which addresses situations "likely to endanger the maintenance of international peace". The Security Council set up the dedicatedUnited Nations Commission for India and Pakistan, which mediated for an entire year as the fighting continued. After several UN resolutions outlining a procedure for resolving the dispute via aplebiscite, a ceasefire agreement was reached between the countries towards the end of December 1948, which came into effect in the New Year. The Security Council set up theUnited Nations Military Observer Group for India and Pakistan (UNMOGIP) to monitor the ceasefire line.[19] India declared a ceasefire in Kashmir Valley during Ramadan in 2018.[citation needed]
TheIrish Republican Army held several Christmas ceasefires (usually referred to as truces) during the Northern Ireland conflict.[20][21]
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An example of a ceasefire in theIsraeli–Palestinian conflict was announced betweenIsrael and thePalestinian National Authority on February 8, 2005. When announced, chiefPalestiniannegotiatorSaeb Erekat publicly defined the ceasefire as follows: "We have agreed that today PresidentMahmoud Abbas will declare a full cessation of violence against Israelis anywhere and Prime MinisterAriel Sharon will declare a full cessation of violence and military activities against Palestinians anywhere."[22] On November 21, 2023, Qatar announced that they had negotiated a truce between Israel and Hamas would pauseGaza war, allow for the release of some hostages and bring more aid to Palestinian civilians. As part of the deal, 50 hostages held by Hamas were released while Israel released 150 Palestinian prisoners.[23]
Several attempts have been made to broker ceasefires in theSyrian Civil War.[24][25][26]
Several attempts have been made to broker ceasefires during theRussian invasion of Ukraine.[27][28][29]
In May 2023,Donald Trump told the UK's GB news that as US president he would end the war within 24 hours, given that he had good relationships with the leaders of Ukraine and Russia. He added that it would be easy to conclude a ceasefire agreement to end the war.[30]
The 2020 global ceasefire was a response to a formal appeal by United Nations Secretary-GeneralAntónio Manuel de Oliveira Guterres on March 23 for a global ceasefire as part of the United Nations' response to the COVID-19coronavirus pandemic. On 24 June 2020, 170 UN Member States and Observers signed a non-binding statement in support of the appeal, rising to 172 on 25 June 2020, and on 1 July 2020, the UN Security Council passed a resolution demanding a general and immediate global cessation of hostilities for at least 90 days.[31][32]
The 2024 Israel–Hezbollah ceasefire was announced by United States PresidentJoe Biden on November 26, 2024.[33]
The adoption of an Israel–Hamas ceasefire was announced by United States PresidentDonald Trump on October 9, 2025 and went into effect on October 10.[34][35]
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