Cavalry had the advantage of improved mobility, and a soldier fighting from horseback also had the advantages of greater height, speed, andinertial mass over an opponent on foot. Another element of horse mounted warfare is the psychological impact a mounted soldier can inflict on an opponent.
The speed, mobility, and shock value of cavalry was greatly valued and exploited in warfare during theAncient andMedieval eras. Some hosts were mostly cavalry, particularly innomadic societies of Asia, notably theHuns ofAttila and the laterMongol armies.[1] In Europe, cavalry became increasingly armoured (heavy), and eventually evolving into the mountedknights of the medieval period. During the 17th century, cavalry in Europe discarded most of its armor, which was ineffective against the muskets and cannons that were coming into common use, and by the mid-18th century armor had mainly fallen into obsolescence, although some regiments retained a small thickenedcuirass that offered protection against lances, sabres, and bayonets; including some protection against a shot from distance.
Most cavalry units that are horse-mounted in modern armies serve in purely ceremonial roles, or as mounted infantry in difficult terrain such as mountains or heavily forested areas. Modern usage of the term generally refers to units performing the role ofreconnaissance, surveillance, and target acquisition (analogous to historical light cavalry) ormain battle tank units (analogous to historical heavy cavalry).
Historically, cavalry was divided intolight cavalry andheavy cavalry. The differences were their roles in combat, the size of their mounts, and how much armor was worn by the mount andrider.
Heavy cavalry, such asByzantinecataphracts andknights of theEarly Middle Ages in Europe, were used asshock troops, charging the main body of the enemy at the height of a battle; in many cases their actions decided the outcome of the battle, hence the later termbattle cavalry.[2] Light cavalry, such ashorse archers,hussars, andCossack cavalry, were assigned all the numerous roles that were ill-suited to more narrowly-focused heavy forces. This includesscouting, deterring enemy scouts,foraging,raiding,skirmishing, pursuit ofretreating enemy forces,screening of retreating friendly forces, linking separated friendly forces, and countering enemy light forces in all these same roles.
Light and heavy cavalry roles continued throughearly modern warfare, but armor was reduced, with light cavalry mostly unarmored. Yet many cavalry units still retainedcuirasses andhelmets for their protective value againstsword andbayonet strikes, and themorale boost these provide to the wearers, despite the actual armour giving little protection fromfirearms. By this time the main difference between light and heavy cavalry was in their training and weight; the former was regarded as best suited for harassment and reconnaissance, while the latter was considered best for close-order charges. By the start of the 20th century, as total battlefieldfirepower increased, cavalry increasingly tended to becomedragoons in practice, riding mounted between battles, but dismounting to fight as infantry, even though retaining unit names that reflected their older cavalry roles. Military conservatism was however strong in most continental cavalry during peacetime and in these dismounted action continued to be regarded as a secondary function until the outbreak of World War I in 1914.[3]
The power of mobility given by mounted units was recognized early on, but was offset by the difficulty of raising large forces and by the inability ofhorses (then mostly small) to carry heavyarmor. Nonetheless, there are indications that, from the 15th century BC onwards, horseback riding was practiced amongst the military elites of the great states of the ancient Near East, most notably those inEgypt,Assyria, theHittite Empire, andMycenaean Greece.[7]
The photograph straight above shows Assyrian cavalry from reliefs of 865–860 BC. At this time, the men had nospurs,saddles,saddle cloths, orstirrups. Fighting from the back of a horse was much more difficult than mere riding. The cavalry acted in pairs; the reins of themounted archer were controlled by his neighbour's hand. Even at this early time, cavalry used swords, shields, spears, and bows. The sculpture implies two types of cavalry, but this might be a simplification by the artist. Later images of Assyrian cavalry show saddle cloths as primitive saddles, allowing each archer to control his own horse.[10]
As early as 490 BC abreed of large horses was bred in theNisaean plain in Media to carrymen with increasing amounts of armour (Herodotus 7,40 & 9,20), but large horses were still very exceptional at this time. By the fourth century BC the Chinese during theWarring States period (403–221 BC) began to use cavalry against rival states,[11] and by 331 BC whenAlexander the Great defeated the Persians the use of chariots in battle was obsolete in most nations; despite a few ineffective attempts to revivescythed chariots. The last recorded use of chariots as a shock force in continental Europe was during theBattle of Telamon in 225 BC.[12] However, chariots remained in use for ceremonial purposes such as carrying the victorious general in aRoman triumph, or for racing.
During the classical Greek period cavalry were usually limited to those citizens who could afford expensive war-horses. Three types of cavalry became common: light cavalry, whose riders, armed withjavelins, could harass and skirmish; heavy cavalry, whose troopers, usinglances, had the ability to close in on their opponents; and finally those whose equipment allowed them to fight either on horseback or foot. The role of horsemen did however remain secondary to that of thehoplites or heavy infantry who comprised the main strength of the citizen levies of the various city states.[13]
Cavalry played a relatively minor role inancient Greekcity-states, with conflicts decided by massed armored infantry. However,Thebes producedPelopidas, their first great cavalry commander, whose tactics and skills were absorbed byPhilip II of Macedon when Philip was a guest-hostage in Thebes.Thessaly was widely known for producing competent cavalrymen,[14] and later experiences in wars both with and against thePersians taught theGreeks the value of cavalry in skirmishing and pursuit. TheAthenian author and soldierXenophon in particular advocated the creation of a small but well-trained cavalry force; to that end, he wrote several manuals on horsemanship and cavalry operations.[15]
TheMacedonian kingdom in the north, on the other hand, developed a strong cavalry force that culminated in thehetairoi (Companion cavalry)[16] of Philip II of Macedon andAlexander the Great. In addition to these heavy cavalry, the Macedonian army also employed lighter horsemen[17] calledprodromoi for scouting and screening, as well as theMacedonian pike phalanx and various kinds oflight infantry. There were also theIppiko (or "Horserider"), Greek "heavy" cavalry, armed withkontos (or cavalry lance), and sword. These wore leather armour or mail plus a helmet. They were medium rather than heavy cavalry, meaning that they were better suited to be scouts, skirmishers, and pursuers rather than front line fighters. The effectiveness of this combination of cavalry and infantry helped to break enemy lines and was most dramatically demonstrated in Alexander's conquests ofPersia,Bactria, and northwestern India.[18]
Tombstone of a Romanauxiliary trooper fromCologne, Germany. Second half of the first century AD.
The cavalry in the earlyRoman Republic remained the preserve of the wealthylanded class known as theequites—men who could afford the expense of maintaining a horse in addition to arms and armor heavier than those of the commonlegions. Horses were provided by the Republic and could be withdrawn if neglected or misused, together with the status of being a cavalryman.[19]
As the class grew to be more of a social elite instead of a functional property-based military grouping, the Romans began to employ Italiansocii for filling the ranks of their cavalry.[20] The weakness of Roman cavalry was demonstrated byHannibal Barca during theSecond Punic War where he used his superior mounted forces to win several battles. The most notable of these was theBattle of Cannae, where he inflicted a catastrophic defeat on the Romans. At about the same time the Romans began to recruit foreign auxiliary cavalry from amongGauls,Iberians, andNumidians, the last being highly valued as mounted skirmishers and scouts (seeNumidian cavalry).Julius Caesar had a high opinion of his escort of Germanic mixed cavalry, giving rise to theCohortes Equitatae. Early emperors maintained anala ofBatavian cavalry as theirpersonal bodyguards until the unit was dismissed byGalba after theBatavian Rebellion.[21]
For the most part, Roman cavalry during the early Republic functioned as an adjunct to the legionary infantry and formed only one-fifth of the standing force comprising a consular army. Except in times of major mobilisation about 1,800 horsemen were maintained, with three hundred attached to each legion.[22] The relatively low ratio of horsemen to infantry does not mean that the utility of cavalry should be underestimated, as its strategic role in scouting, skirmishing, and outpost duties was crucial to the Romans' capability to conduct operations over long distances in hostile or unfamiliar territory. On some occasions Roman cavalry also proved its ability to strike a decisive tactical blow against a weakened or unprepared enemy, such as the final charge at theBattle of Aquilonia.[23]
After defeats such as theBattle of Carrhae, the Romans learned the importance of large cavalry formations from theParthians.[24] At the same time heavy spears and shields modelled on those favoured by the horsemen of the Greek city-states were adopted to replace the lighter weaponry of early Rome.[25] These improvements in tactics and equipment reflected those of a thousand years earlier when the first Iranians to reach theIranian Plateau forced theAssyrians to undertake similar reform. Nonetheless, the Romans would continue to rely mainly on theirheavy infantry supported by auxiliary cavalry.
In the army of the lateRoman Empire, cavalry played an increasingly important role. TheSpatha, the classical sword throughout most of the 1st millennium was adopted as the standard model for the Empire's cavalry forces. By the 6th century these had evolved into lengthy straight weapons influenced by Persian and other eastern patterns.[26] Other specialist weapons during this period included javelins, long reaching lancers, axes and maces.[27]
The most widespread employment of heavy cavalry at this time was found in the forces of the Iranian empires, theParthians and theirPersianSasanian successors. Both, but especially the former, were famed for thecataphract (fully armored cavalry armed with lances) even though the majority of their forces consisted of lighterhorse archers. The West first encountered this eastern heavy cavalry during theHellenistic period with further intensive contacts during the eight centuries of theRoman–Persian Wars. At first the Parthians' mobility greatly confounded the Romans, whose armoured close-order infantry proved unable to match the speed of the Parthians. However, later the Romans would successfully adapt such heavy armor and cavalry tactics by creating their own units of cataphracts andclibanarii.[28]
The decline of the Roman infrastructure made it more difficult to field large infantry forces, and during the 4th and 5th centuries cavalry began to take a more dominant role on the European battlefield, also in part made possible by the appearance of new, larger breeds of horses. The replacement of the Romansaddle by variants on the Scythian model, withpommel and cantle,[29] was also a significant factor as was the adoption ofstirrups and the concomitant increase in stability of the rider's seat. Armored cataphracts began to be deployed in Eastern Europe and the Near East, following the precedents established byPersian forces, as the main striking force of the armies in contrast to the earlier roles of cavalry as scouts, raiders, and outflankers.[30]
The late-Roman cavalry tradition of organized units in a standing army differed fundamentally from the nobility of the Germanic invaders—individual warriors who could afford to provide their own horses and equipment. While there was no direct linkage with these predecessors the early medieval knight also developed as a member of a social and martial elite, able to meet the considerable expenses required by his role from grants of land and other incomes.[31]
Xiongnu,Tujue,Avars,Kipchaks,Khitans,Mongols,Don Cossacks and the variousTurkic peoples are also examples of the horse-mounted groups that managed to gain substantial successes in military conflicts with settled agrarian and urban societies, due to their strategic and tactical mobility. As European states began to assume the character of bureaucraticnation-states supporting professional standing armies, recruitment of these mounted warriors was undertaken in order to fill the strategic roles of scouts and raiders.
The best known instance of the continued employment of mounted tribal auxiliaries were the Cossack cavalry regiments of theRussian Empire. InEastern Europe, and out onto thesteppes, cavalry remained important much longer and dominated the scene of warfare until the early 17th century and even beyond, as the strategic mobility of cavalry was crucial for the semi-nomadicpastoralist lives that many steppe cultures led.Tibetans also had a tradition of cavalry warfare, in several military engagements with the ChineseTang dynasty (618–907 AD).
AnEastern Han glazed ceramic statue of a horse withbridle andhalter headgear, fromSichuan, late 2nd century to early 3rd century AD
Further east, themilitary history of China, specificallynorthern China, held a long tradition of intense military exchange betweenHan Chinese infantry forces of the settled dynastic empires and the mountednomads or "barbarians" of the north. Thenaval history of China was centered more to the south, where mountains, rivers, and large lakes necessitated the employment of a large and well-keptnavy.
In 307 BC,King Wuling of Zhao, the ruler of the formerstate of Jin, ordered his commanders and troops to adopt thetrousers of thenomads as well as practice the nomads' form of mounted archery to hone their new cavalry skills.[11]
The adoption of massed cavalry in China also broke the tradition of thechariot-ridingChinese aristocracy in battle, which had been in use since the ancientShang dynasty (c. 1600–1050 BC).[32] By this time large Chinese infantry-based armies of 100,000 to 200,000 troops were now buttressed with several hundred thousand mounted cavalry in support or as an effective striking force.[33] The handheld pistol-and-triggercrossbow was invented in China in the fourth century BC;[34] it was written by theSong dynasty scholars Zeng Gongliang, Ding Du, and Yang Weide in their bookWujing Zongyao (1044 AD) that massed missile fire by crossbowmen was the most effective defense against enemy cavalry charges.[35]
On many occasions the Chinese studied nomadic cavalry tactics and applied the lessons in creating their own potent cavalry forces, while in others they simply recruited the tribal horsemen wholesale into their armies; and in yet other cases nomadic empires proved eager to enlist Chinese infantry and engineering, as in the case of theMongol Empire and its sinicized part, theYuan dynasty (1279–1368). The Chinese recognized early on during theHan dynasty (202 BC – 220 AD) that they were at a disadvantage in lacking the number of horses the northern nomadic peoples mustered in their armies.Emperor Wu of Han (r 141–87 BC) went to war with theDayuan for this reason, since the Dayuan were hoarding a massive amount of tall, strong, Central Asian bred horses in theHellenized–Greek region ofFergana (established slightly earlier byAlexander the Great). Although experiencing some defeats early on in the campaign, Emperor Wu's war from 104 BC to 102 BC succeeded in gathering the prized tribute of horses from Fergana.
Cavalry tactics in China were enhanced by the invention of the saddle-attachedstirrup by at least the 4th century, as the oldest reliable depiction of a rider with paired stirrups was found in aJin dynasty tomb of the year 322 AD.[36][37][38] The Chinese invention of thehorse collar by the 5th century was also a great improvement from the breast harness, allowing the horse to haul greater weight without heavy burden on its skeletal structure.[39][40]
The horse warfare ofKorea was first started during the ancient Korean kingdomGojoseon. Since at least the 3rd century BC, there was influence of northernnomadic peoples andYemaek peoples on Korean warfare. By roughly the first century BC, the ancient kingdom ofBuyeo also had mounted warriors.[41] The cavalry ofGoguryeo, one of theThree Kingdoms of Korea, were calledGaemamusa (개마무사, 鎧馬武士), and were renowned as a fearsome heavy cavalry force.King Gwanggaeto the Great often led expeditions into theBaekje,Gaya confederacy,Buyeo,Later Yan and againstJapanese invaders with his cavalry.[42]
In the 12th century,Jurchen tribes began to violate the Goryeo–Jurchen borders, and eventually invadedGoryeo Korea. After experiencing invasion by the Jurchen, Korean generalYun Kwan realized that Goryeo lacked efficient cavalry units. He reorganized the Goryeo military into a professional army that would contain decent and well-trained cavalry units. In 1107, the Jurchen were ultimately defeated, and surrendered to Yun Kwan. To mark the victory, General Yun built nine fortresses to the northeast of the Goryeo–Jurchen borders (동북 9성, 東北 九城).
A mountedsamurai with bow and arrows, wearing a horned helmet.c. 1878
Theancient Japanese of theKofun period also adoptedcavalry and equine culture by the 5th century AD. The emergence of thesamurai aristocracy led to the development of armoured horse archers, themselves to develop into charginglancer cavalry as gunpowder weapons rendered bows obsolete. Japanese cavalry was largely made up of landowners who would be upon a horse to better survey the troops they were called upon to bring to an engagement, rather than traditional mounted warfare seen in other cultures with massed cavalry units.
An example isYabusame (流鏑馬), a type of mounted archery in traditional Japanese archery. An archer on a running horse shoots three special "turnip-headed" arrows successively at three wooden targets.
This style of archery has its origins at the beginning of the Kamakura period.Minamoto no Yoritomo became alarmed at the lack of archery skills his samurai had. He organized yabusame as a form of practice.Currently, the best places to see yabusame performed are at the Tsurugaoka Hachiman-gū in Kamakura and Shimogamo Shrine in Kyoto (during Aoi Matsuri in early May). It is also performed in Samukawa and on the beach at Zushi, as well as other locations.
Kasagake or Kasakake (笠懸, かさがけ lit. "hat shooting") is a type of Japanese mounted archery. In contrast to yabusame, the types of targets are various and the archer shoots without stopping the horse. While yabusame has been played as a part of formal ceremonies, kasagake has developed as a game or practice of martial arts, focusing on technical elements of horse archery.
In the Indian subcontinent, cavalry played a major role from theGupta dynasty (320–600) period onwards. India has also the oldest evidence for the introduction of toe-stirrups.[43]
Indian literature contains numerous references to the mounted warriors of theCentral Asian horse nomads, notably theSakas,Kambojas,Yavanas,Pahlavas andParadas. NumerousPuranic texts refer to a conflict in ancient India (16th century BC)[44] in which the horsemen of five nations, called the "Five Hordes" (pañca.ganan) orKṣatriya hordes (Kṣatriya ganah), attacked and captured the state of Ayudhya by dethroning itsVedic King Bahu[45]
Manuscript illustration of the Battle of Kurukshetra
TheMahabharata,Ramayana, numerousPuranas and some foreign sources attest that the Kamboja cavalry frequently played role in ancient wars. V. R. Ramachandra Dikshitar writes: "Both the Puranas and the epics agree that the horses of the Sindhu and Kamboja regions were of the finest breed, and that the services of the Kambojas as cavalry troopers were utilised in ancient wars".[46] J.A.O.S. writes: "Most famous horses are said to come either from Sindhu or Kamboja; of the latter (i.e. the Kamboja), the IndianepicMahabharata speaks among the finest horsemen".[47]
Coin ofChandragupta II or Vikramaditya, one of the most powerful emperors of the Gupta empire during times referred to as the Golden Age of IndiaRajput warrior on horseback
The Mahabharata speaks of the esteemed cavalry of the Kambojas, Sakas, Yavanas andTusharas, all of whom had participated in theKurukshetra war under the supreme command ofKamboja rulerSudakshin Kamboj.[48]
Mahabharata and Vishnudharmottara Purana pay especial attention to the Kambojas, Yavansa, Gandharas etc. beingashva.yuddha.kushalah (expert cavalrymen).[49] In the Mahabharata war, the Kamboja cavalry along with that of the Sakas, Yavanas is reported to have been enlisted by theKuru kingDuryodhana ofHastinapura.[50]
TheSanskrit dramaMudra-rakashas byVisakha Dutta and theJaina workParishishtaparvan refer toChandragupta's (c. 320 BC –c. 298 BC) alliance withHimalayan kingParvataka. TheHimalayan alliance gave Chandragupta a formidable composite army made up of the cavalry forces of the Shakas, Yavanas, Kambojas, Kiratas, Parasikas and Bahlikas as attested by Mudra-Rakashas (Mudra-Rakshasa 2).[a] These hordes had helpedChandragupta Maurya defeat the ruler ofMagadha and placed Chandragupta on the throne, thus laying the foundations ofMauryan dynasty in Northern India.
The cavalry ofHunas and the Kambojas is also attested in theRaghu Vamsa epic poem of Sanskrit poetKalidasa.[60] Raghu of Kalidasa is believed to beChandragupta II (Vikaramaditya) (375–413/15 AD), of the well-knownGupta dynasty.
As late as the mediaeval era, the Kamboja cavalry had also formed part of the Gurjara-Pratihara armed forces from the eighth to the 10th centuries AD. They had come toBengal with thePratiharas when the latter conquered part of the province.[61][62][63][64][65]
Ancient Kambojas organised militarysanghas andshrenis (corporations) to manage their political and military affairs, asArthashastra ofKautiliya as well as theMahabharata record. They are described asAyuddha-jivi orShastr-opajivis (nations-in-arms), which also means that the Kamboja cavalry offered itsmilitary services to other nations as well. There are numerous references to Kambojas having been requisitioned as cavalrytroopers in ancient wars by outsidenations.
The Mughal armies (lashkar) were primarily a cavalry force. The elite corps were theahadi who provided direct service to the Emperor and acted as guard cavalry. Supplementary cavalry ordakhilis were recruited, equipped and paid by the central state. This was in contrast to thetabinan horsemen who were the followers of individual noblemen. Their training and equipment varied widely but they made up the backbone of the Mughal cavalry. Finally there were tribal irregulars led by and loyal to tributary chiefs. These included Hindus, Afghans and Turks summoned for military service when their autonomous leaders were called on by the Imperial government.[66]
As the quality and availability ofheavy infantry declined in Europe with the fall of the Roman Empire,heavy cavalry became more effective. Infantry that lack the cohesion and discipline of tight formations are more susceptible to being broken and scattered byshock combat—the main role of heavy cavalry, which rose to become the dominant force on the European battlefield.[67]
As heavy cavalry increased in importance, it became the main focus of military development. The arms and armour for heavy cavalry increased, the high-backedsaddle developed, andstirrups andspurs were added, increasing the advantage of heavy cavalry even more.[68]
This shift in military importance was reflected in an increasingly hierarchical society as well. From the late 10th century onwards heavily armed horsemen,milites orknights, emerged as an expensive elite taking centre stage both on and off the battlefield.[69] This class of aristocratic warriors was considered the "ultimate" in heavy cavalry: well-equipped with the best weapons, state-of-the-art armour from head to foot, leading with thelance in battle in a full-gallop, close-formation "knightly charge" that might prove irresistible, winning the battle almost as soon as it began.
A 13th-century depiction of a riding horse. Note resemblance to the modernPaso FinoA Hussite war wagon: it enabled peasants to defeat knights
But knights remained the minority of total available combat forces; the expense of arms, armour, and horses was only affordable to a select few. While mounted men-at-arms focused on a narrow combat role of shock combat, medieval armies relied on a large variety of foot troops to fulfill all the rest (skirmishing, flank guards, scouting, holding ground, etc.). Medieval chroniclers tended to pay undue attention to the knights at the expense of the common soldiers, which led early students of military history to suppose that heavy cavalry was the only force that mattered on medieval European battlefields. But well-trained and disciplined infantry could defeat knights.
MassedEnglish longbowmen triumphed over French cavalry atCrécy,Poitiers andAgincourt, while atGisors (1188),Bannockburn (1314), andLaupen (1339),[70] foot-soldiers proved they could resist cavalry charges as long as they held their formation. Once theSwiss developed theirpike squares for offensive as well as defensive use, infantry started to become the principal arm. This aggressive new doctrine gave the Swiss victory over a range of adversaries, and their enemies found that the only reliable way to defeat them was by the use of an even more comprehensivecombined arms doctrine, as evidenced in theBattle of Marignano. The introduction of missile weapons that required less skill than the longbow, such as thecrossbow andhand cannon, also helped remove the focus somewhat from cavalry elites to masses of cheap infantry equipped with easy-to-learn weapons. These missile weapons were very successfully used in theHussite Wars, in combination withWagenburg tactics.
This gradual rise in the dominance of infantry led to the adoption of dismounted tactics. From the earliest times knights and mounted men-at-arms had frequently dismounted to handle enemies they could not overcome on horseback, such as in theBattle of the Dyle (891) and theBattle of Bremule (1119), but after the 1350s this trend became more marked with the dismounted men-at-arms fighting as super-heavy infantry with two-handedswords andpoleaxes.[71] In any case, warfare in the Middle Ages tended to be dominated by raids and sieges rather than pitched battles, and mounted men-at-arms rarely had any choice other than dismounting when faced with the prospect of assaulting a fortified position.
Early organized Arab mounted forces under theRashiduncaliphate comprised alight cavalry armed withlance andsword. Its main role was to attack the enemy flanks and rear. These relatively lightly armored horsemen formed the most effective element of the Muslim armies during the later stages of the Islamic conquest of the Levant. The best use of this lightly armed fast moving cavalry was revealed at theBattle of Yarmouk (636 AD) in whichKhalid ibn Walid, knowing the skills of his horsemen, used them to turn the tables at every critical instance of the battle with their ability to engage, disengage, then turn back and attack again from the flank or rear. A strong cavalry regiment was formed by Khalid ibn Walid which included the veterans of the campaign of Iraq and Syria. Early Muslim historians have given it the nameTali'a mutaharrikah(طليعة متحركة), or theMobile guard. This was used as an advance guard and a strong striking force to route the opposing armies with its greater mobility that give it an upper hand when maneuvering against anyByzantine army. With this mobile striking force, the conquest of Syria was made easy.[74]
Until the 11th century the classic cavalry strategy of the Arab Middle East incorporated therazzia tactics of fast moving raids by mixed bodies of horsemen and infantry. Under the talented leadership ofSaladin and other Islamic commanders the emphasis changed to Mamluk horse-archers backed by bodies of irregular light cavalry. Trained to rapidly disperse, harass and regroup these flexible mounted forces proved capable of withstanding the previously invincible heavy knights of the western crusaders at battles such as Hattin in 1187.[75]
Originating in the 9th century as Central Asianghulams or captives utilised as mounted auxiliaries by Arab armies,[76] Mamluks were subsequently trained as cavalry soldiers rather than solely mounted-archers, with increased priority being given to the use of lances and swords.[77] Mamluks were to follow the dictates ofal-furusiyya,[78] a code of conduct that included values like courage and generosity but also doctrine of cavalry tactics, horsemanship, archery and treatment of wounds.
By the late 13th century the Manluk armies had evolved into a professional elite of cavalry, backed by more numerous but less well-trained footmen.[79]
The Islamic Berber states of North Africa employed elite horse mounted cavalry armed with spears and following the model of the original Arab occupiers of the region. Horse-harness and weapons were manufactured locally and the six-monthly stipends for horsemen were double those of their infantry counterparts. During the 8th centuryIslamic conquest of Iberia large numbers of horses and riders were shipped from North Africa, to specialise in raiding and the provision of support for the massed Berber footmen of the main armies.[80]
Maghrebi traditions of mounted warfare eventually influenced a number ofsub-Saharan African polities in the medieval era. TheEsos of Ikoyi, military aristocrats of theYoruba peoples, were a notable manifestation of this phenomenon.[81]
Kanem-Bu warriors armed with spears in the retinue of a mounted war chief.The Earth and Its Inhabitants, 1892
During its period of greatest expansion, from the 14th to 17th centuries, cavalry formed the powerful core of the Ottoman armies. Registers dated 1475 record 22,000Sipahi feudal cavalry levied in Europe, 17,000Sipahis recruited from Anatolia, and 3,000Kapikulu (regular body-guard cavalry).[86] During the 18th century however the Ottoman mounted troops evolved into light cavalry serving in the thinly populated regions of the Middle East and North Africa.[87] Such frontier horsemen were largely raised by local governors and were separate from the main field armies of the Ottoman Empire. At the beginning of the 19th century modernisedNizam-I Credit ("New Army") regiments appeared, including full-time cavalry units officered from the horse guards of the Sultan.[88]
Knightly cavalry and noblemen, painting byJan van Eyck (c. 1390–1441)
Ironically, the rise of infantry in the early 16th century coincided with the "golden age" of heavy cavalry; a French or Spanish army at the beginning of the century could have up to half its numbers made up of various kinds of light and heavy cavalry, whereas in earlier medieval and later 17th-century armies the proportion of cavalry was seldom more than a quarter.
Knighthood largely lost its military functions and became more closely tied to social and economic prestige in an increasingly capitalistic Western society. With the rise of drilled and trained infantry, the mounted men-at-arms, now sometimes calledgendarmes and often part of the standing army themselves, adopted the same role as in the Hellenistic age, that of delivering a decisive blow once the battle was already engaged, either by charging the enemy in the flank or attacking their commander-in-chief.
From the 1550s onwards, the use ofgunpowder weapons solidified infantry's dominance of the battlefield and began to allow true mass armies to develop. This is closely related to the increase in the size of armies throughout the early modern period; heavily armored cavalrymen were expensive to raise and maintain and it took years to train a skilled horseman or a horse, whilearquebusiers and latermusketeers could be trained and kept in the field at much lower cost, and were much easier to recruit.
The Spanishtercio and later formations relegated cavalry to a supporting role. Thepistol was specifically developed to try to bring cavalry back into the conflict, together with manoeuvres such as thecaracole. The caracole was not particularly successful, however, and the charge (whether with lance, sword, or pistol) remained as the primary mode of employment for many types of European cavalry, although by this time it was delivered in much deeper formations and with greater discipline than before. Thedemi-lancers and the heavily armored sword-and-pistolreiters were among the types of cavalry whose heyday was in the 16th and 17th centuries. During this period thePolish Winged hussars were a dominating heavy cavalry force in Eastern Europe that initially achieved great success againstSwedes,Russians,Turks and other, until repeatably beaten by either combined arms tactics, increase in firepower or beaten in melee with theDrabant cavalry of theSwedish Empire. From their last engagement in 1702 (at theBattle of Kliszów) until 1776, the obsolete Winged hussars were demoted and largely assigned to ceremonial roles. ThePolish Winged hussars military prowess peaked at theSiege of Vienna in 1683, when hussarbanners participated in the largest cavalry charge in history and successfully repelled the Ottoman attack.
Cavalry retained an important role in this age of regularization and standardization across European armies. They remained the primary choice for confronting enemy cavalry. Attacking an unbroken infantry force head-on usually resulted in failure, but extended linear infantry formations were vulnerable to flank or rear attacks. Cavalry was important atBlenheim (1704),Rossbach (1757),Marengo (1800),Eylau andFriedland (1807), remaining significant throughout theNapoleonic Wars.
Even with the increasing prominence of infantry, cavalry still had an irreplaceable role in armies, due to their greater mobility. Their non-battle duties often included patrolling the fringes of army encampments, with standing orders to intercept suspected shirkers and deserters,[90] as well as, serving asoutpost pickets in advance of the main body. During battle, lighter cavalry such ashussars anduhlans might skirmish with other cavalry, attack light infantry, or charge and either capture enemy artillery or render them useless by plugging the touchholes with iron spikes. Heavier cavalry such ascuirassiers,dragoons, andcarabiniers usually charged towards infantry formations or opposing cavalry in order torout them. Both light and heavy cavalry pursued retreating enemies, the point where most battle casualties occurred.[91]
The greatest cavalry charge of modern history was at the 1807Battle of Eylau, when the entire 11,000-strong French cavalry reserve, led byJoachim Murat, launched a huge charge on and through the Russian infantry lines. Cavalry's dominating and menacing presence on the battlefield was countered by the use ofinfantry squares. The most notable examples are at theBattle of Quatre Bras and later at theBattle of Waterloo, the latter which the repeatedcharges by up to 9,000 French cavalrymen ordered byMichel Ney failed to break the British-Allied army, who had formed into squares.[92]
The British 28th infantry Regiment formed into a square at theBattle of Quatre Bras for protection from cavalry
Massed infantry, especially those formed in squares were deadly to cavalry, but offered an excellent target forartillery. Once a bombardment had disordered the infantry formation, cavalry were able torout and pursue the scattered foot soldiers. It was not until individual firearms gained accuracy and improved rates of fire that cavalry was diminished in this role as well. Even then light cavalry remained an indispensable tool for scouting, screening the army's movements, and harassing the enemy's supply lines until military aircraft supplanted them in this role in the early stages ofWorld War I.
There were cavalry variations for individual nations as well: France had thechasseurs à cheval; Prussia had theJäger zu Pferde;[93] Bavaria,[94] Saxony and Austria[95] had theChevaulegers; and Russia hadCossacks. Britain, from the mid-18th century, hadLight Dragoons as light cavalry and Dragoons,Dragoon Guards andHousehold Cavalry as heavy cavalry. Only after the end of the Napoleonic wars were the Household Cavalry equipped with cuirasses, and some other regiments were converted to lancers. In theUnited States Army prior to 1862 the cavalry were almost always dragoons. TheImperial Japanese Army had its cavalry uniformed ashussars, but they fought as dragoons.
Monument to the Spanish Regiment of light cavalry of Alcántara
During theFranco-Prussian War, at theBattle of Mars-la-Tour in 1870, a Prussian cavalry brigade decisively smashed the centre of the French battle line, after skilfully concealing their approach. This event became known asVon Bredow's Death Ride after the brigade commanderAdalbert von Bredow; it would be used in the following decades to argue that massed cavalry charges still had a place on the modern battlefield.[97]
Cavalry found a new role in colonial campaigns (irregular warfare), where modern weapons were lacking and the slow moving infantry-artillery train or fixed fortifications were often ineffective against indigenous insurgents (unless the latter offered a fight on an equal footing, as atTel-el-Kebir,Omdurman, etc.). Cavalry "flying columns" proved effective, or at least cost-effective, in many campaigns—although an astute native commander (likeSamori in western Africa,Shamil in theCaucasus, or any of the betterBoer commanders) could turn the tables and use the greater mobility of their cavalry to offset their relative lack of firepower compared with European forces.
In 1903 theBritish Indian Army maintained forty regiments of cavalry, numbering about 25,000 Indiansowars (cavalrymen), with British and Indian officers.[98]
Among the more famous regiments in the lineages of the modern Indian and Pakistani armies are:
The charge of the 21st Lancers atOmdurman19th Lancers near Mametz during the Battle of the Somme, 15 July 1916
Several of these formations are still active, though they now are armoured formations, for example theGuides Cavalry of Pakistan.[99]
Algerian spahis of the French Army 1886
The French Army maintained substantial cavalry forces in Algeria and Morocco from 1830 until the end ofWorld War II. Much of the Mediterranean coastal terrain was suitable for mounted action and there was a long established culture of horsemanship amongst the Arab and Berber inhabitants. The French forces includedSpahis,Chasseurs d' Afrique,Foreign Legion cavalry and mountedGoumiers.[100] Both Spain and Italy raised cavalry regiments from amongst the indigenous horsemen of their North African territories (seeregulares,Italian Spahis[101] andsavari respectively).
Imperial Germany employed mounted formations in South West Africa as part of theSchutztruppen (colonial army) garrisoning the territory.[102]
In the earlyAmerican Civil War the regular United States Army mounted rifle, dragoon, and two existing cavalry regiments were reorganized and renamed cavalry regiments, of which there were six.[103] Over a hundred other federal and state cavalry regiments were organized, but the infantry played a much larger role in many battles due to its larger numbers, lower cost per rifle fielded, and much easier recruitment. However, cavalry saw a role as part of screening forces and in foraging and scouting. The later phases of the war saw theFederal army developing a truly effective cavalry force fighting asscouts, raiders, and, with repeating rifles, asmounted infantry. The distinguished 1st Virginia Cavalry ranks as one of the most effectual and successful cavalry units on the Confederate side. Noted cavalry commanders included Confederate generalJ.E.B. Stuart,Nathan Bedford Forrest, andJohn Singleton Mosby (a.k.a. "The Grey Ghost") and on the Union side,Philip Sheridan andGeorge Armstrong Custer.[104]Post Civil War, as the volunteer armies disbanded, the regular army cavalry regiments increased in number from six to ten, among them Custer'sU.S. 7th Cavalry Regiment ofLittle Bighorn fame, and theAfrican-AmericanU.S. 9th Cavalry Regiment andU.S. 10th Cavalry Regiment. The black units, along with others (both cavalry and infantry), collectively became known as theBuffalo Soldiers. According toRobert M. Utley:
the frontier army was a conventional military force trying to control, by conventional military methods, a people that did not behave like conventional enemies and, indeed, quite often were not enemies at all. This is the most difficult of all military assignments, whether in Africa, Asia, or the American West.[105]
These regiments, which rarely took the field as complete organizations, served throughout theAmerican Indian Wars through the close of the frontier in the 1890s. Volunteer cavalry regiments like theRough Riders consisted of horsemen such ascowboys,ranchers and other outdoorsmen, that served as a cavalry in the United States Military.[106]
Italian cavalry officers practice their horsemanship in 1904 outside Rome
At the beginning of the 20th century, all armies still maintained substantial cavalry forces, although there was contention over whether their role should revert to that of mounted infantry (the historic dragoon function). With motorised vehicles and aircraft still under development, horse mounted troops remained the only fully mobile forces available for manoeuvre warfare until 1914.[107]
Following the experience of theSouth African War of 1899–1902 (where mounted Boer citizen commandos fighting on foot from cover proved more effective than regular cavalry), the British Army withdrew lances for all but ceremonial purposes and placed a new emphasis on training for dismounted action in 1903. Lances were however readopted for active service in 1912.[108]
In 1882, the Imperial Russian Army converted all its line hussar and lancer regiments to dragoons, with an emphasis on mounted infantry training. In 1910 these regiments reverted to their historic roles, designations and uniforms.[109]
By 1909, official regulations dictating the role of the Imperial German cavalry had been revised to indicate an increasing realization of the realities of modern warfare. The massive cavalry charge in three waves which had previously marked the end of annual maneuvers was discontinued and a new emphasis was placed in training on scouting, raiding and pursuit; rather than main battle involvement.[110] The perceived importance of cavalry was however still evident, with thirteen new regiments of mounted rifles (Jäger zu Pferde) being raised shortly before the outbreak of war in 1914.[111]
In spite of significant experience in mounted warfare in Morocco during 1908–14, the French cavalry remained a highly conservative institution.[112] The traditional tactical distinctions between heavy, medium, and light cavalry branches were retained.[113] French cuirassiers wore breastplates and plumed helmets unchanged from the Napoleonic period, during the early months of World War I.[114] Dragoons were similarly equipped, though they did not wear cuirasses and did carry lances.[115] Light cavalry were described as being "a blaze of colour". French cavalry of all branches were well mounted and were trained to change position and charge at full gallop.[116] One weakness in training was that French cavalrymen seldom dismounted on the march and their horses suffered heavily from raw backs in August 1914.[117]
Austro-Hungarian cavalry, 1898German cavalryman in September 1914,German South-West Africa Dead German cavalry horses after theBattle of Halen – where the Belgian cavalry, fighting dismounted, decimated their still mounted German counterparts
In August 1914, all combatant armies still retained substantial numbers of cavalry and the mobile nature of the opening battles on bothEastern andWestern Fronts provided a number of instances of traditional cavalry actions, though on a smaller and more scattered scale than those of previous wars. The 110 regiments of Imperial German cavalry, while as colourful and traditional as any in peacetime appearance,[118] had adopted a practice of falling back on infantry support when any substantial opposition was encountered.[119] These cautious tactics aroused derision amongst their more conservative French and Russian opponents[120] but proved appropriate to the new nature of warfare. A single attempt by the German army, on 12 August 1914, to use six regiments of massed cavalry to cut off the Belgian field army fromAntwerp floundered when they were driven back in disorder by rifle fire.[121] The two German cavalry brigades involved lost 492 men and 843 horses in repeated charges against dismounted Belgian lancers and infantry.[122] One of the last recorded charges by French cavalry took place on the night of 9/10 September 1914 when a squadron of the 16th Dragoons overran a German airfield atSoissons, while suffering heavy losses.[123] Once the front lines stabilised on the Western Front with the start ofTrench Warfare, a combination of barbed wire, uneven muddy terrain, machine guns and rapid fire rifles proved deadly to horse mounted troops and by early 1915 most cavalry units were no longer seeing front line action.
On the Eastern Front, a more fluid form of warfare arose from flat open terrain favorable to mounted warfare. On the outbreak of war in 1914 the bulk of the Russian cavalry was deployed at full strength in frontier garrisons and, during the period that the main armies were mobilizing, scouting and raiding intoEast Prussia andAustrian Galicia was undertaken by mounted troops trained to fight with sabre and lance in the traditional style.[124] On 21 August 1914 the 4th Austro-Hungarian4th Cavalry Division [pl] underEdmund Ritter von Zaremba [pl] clashed with the Russian10th Cavalry Division under generalFyodor Arturovich Keller in theBattle of Jaroslawice,[125] in what was arguably the final historic battle to involve thousands of horsemen on both sides.[126] While this was the last massed cavalry encounter on the Eastern Front, the absence of good roads limited the use of mechanized transport and even the technologically advanced Imperial German Army continued to deploy up to twenty-four horse-mounted divisions in the East, as late as 1917.[127]
A British cavalry trooper in marching order (1914–1918)
For the remainder of the War on the Western Front, cavalry had virtually no role to play. The British and French armies dismounted many of their cavalry regiments and used them in infantry and other roles: theLife Guards for example spent the last months of the War as a machine gun corps; and theAustralian Light Horse served as light infantry during the Gallipoli campaign. In September 1914 cavalry comprised 9.28% of the total manpower of theBritish Expeditionary Force in France—by July 1918 this proportion had fallen to 1.65%.[128] As early as the first winter of the war most French cavalry regiments had dismounted a squadron each, for service in the trenches.[129] The French cavalry numbered 102,000 in May 1915 but had been reduced to 63,000 by October 1918.[130] The German Army dismounted nearly all their cavalry in the West, maintaining only one mounted division on that front by January 1917.
Germandragoons, armed with lances, after the capture of Warsaw, August 1915
Italy entered the war in 1915 with thirty regiments of line cavalry, lancers and light horse. While employed effectively against their Austro-Hungarian counterparts during the initial offensives across theIsonzo River, the Italian mounted forces ceased to have a significant role as the front shifted into mountainous terrain. By 1916 most cavalry machine-gun sections and two complete cavalry divisions had been dismounted and seconded to the infantry.[131]
Some cavalry were retained as mounted troops in reserve behind the lines, in anticipation of a penetration of the opposing trenches that it seemed would never come.Tanks, introduced on the Western Front by the British in September 1916 during theBattle of the Somme, had the capacity to achieve such breakthroughs but did not have the reliable range to exploit them. In their first major use at theBattle of Cambrai (1917), the plan was for a cavalry division to follow behind the tanks, however they were not able to cross a canal because a tank had broken the only bridge.[132] On a few other occasions, throughout the war, cavalry were readied in significant numbers for involvement in major offensives; such as in theBattle of Caporetto and theBattle of Moreuil Wood. However it was not until the German Army had been forced to retreat in theHundred Days Offensive of 1918, that limited numbers of cavalry were again able to operate with any effectiveness in their intended role. There was a successful charge by the British7th Dragoon Guards on the last day of the war.[133]
In the wider spaces of the Eastern Front, a more fluid form of warfare continued and there was still a use for mounted troops. Some wide-ranging actions were fought, again mostly in the early months of the war.[134] However, even here the value of cavalry was overrated and the maintenance of large mounted formations at the front by theRussian Army put a major strain on the railway system, to little strategic advantage.[135] In February 1917, the Russian regular cavalry (exclusive of Cossacks) was reduced by nearly a third from its peak number of 200,000, as two squadrons of each regiment were dismounted and incorporated into additional infantry battalions.[136] Their Austro-Hungarian opponents, plagued by a shortage of trained infantry, had been obliged to progressively convert most horse cavalry regiments to dismounted rifle units starting in late 1914.[137]
In the Middle East, during theSinai and Palestine Campaign mounted forces (British, Indian, Ottoman, Australian, Arab and New Zealand) retained an important strategic role both as mounted infantry and cavalry.
After a stalemate on the Gaza–Beersheba line between March and October 1917,Beersheba was captured by theAustralian Mounted Division's 4th Light Horse Brigade. Their mounted charge succeeded after acoordinated attack by the British Infantry and Yeomanry cavalry and the Australian and New Zealand Light Horse and Mounted Rifles brigades. A series of coordinated attacks by theseEgyptian Expeditionary Force infantry and mounted troops were also successful at theBattle of Mughar Ridge, during which the British infantry divisions and the Desert Mounted Corps drove two Ottoman armies back to the Jaffa—Jerusalem line. The infantry with mainly dismounted cavalry and mounted infantry fought in theJudean Hills to eventually almost encircleJerusalem which was occupied shortly after.
During a pause in operations necessitated by theGerman spring offensive in 1918 on the Western Front, joint infantry and mounted infantry attacks towardsAmman andEs Salt resulted in retreats back to theJordan Valley which continued to be occupied by mounted divisions during the summer of 1918.
A combination of military conservatism in almost all armies and post-war financial constraints prevented the lessons of 1914–1918 being acted on immediately. There was a general reduction in the number of cavalry regiments in the British, French, Italian[139] and other Western armies but it was still argued with conviction (for example in the 1922 edition of theEncyclopædia Britannica) that mounted troops had a major role to play in future warfare.[140] The 1920s saw an interim period during which cavalry remained as a proud and conspicuous element of all major armies, though much less so than prior to 1914.
Cavalry was extensively used in theRussian Civil War and theSoviet-Polish War.[141] The last major cavalry battle was theBattle of Komarów in 1920, between Poland and the Russian Bolsheviks. Colonial warfare in Morocco, Syria, the Middle East and theNorth West Frontier of India provided some opportunities for mounted action against enemies lacking advanced weaponry.
The post-war German Army (Reichsheer) was permitted a large proportion of cavalry (18 regiments or 16.4% of total manpower) under the conditions of theTreaty of Versailles.[142]
TheBritish Army mechanised all cavalry regiments between 1929 and 1941, redefining their role from horse to armoured vehicles to form theRoyal Armoured Corps together with theRoyal Tank Regiment. The U.S. Cavalry abandoned its sabres in 1934[143] and commenced the conversion of its horsed regiments to mechanized cavalry, starting with the First Regiment of Cavalry in January 1933.[144]
During theTurkish War of Independence, Turkish cavalry under GeneralFahrettin Altay was instrumental in theKemalist victory over the invading Greek Army in 1922 during theBattle of Dumlupınar. The 5th Cavalry Division was able to slip behind the main Greek army, cutting off all communication and supply lines as well as retreat options. This forced the surrender of the remaining Greek forces and may have been the last time in history that cavalry played a definitive role in the outcome of a battle.
Turkish cavalry during mopping-up operation 1922
During the 1930s, the French Army experimented with integrating mounted and mechanised cavalry units into larger formations.[145] Dragoon regiments were converted to motorised infantry (trucks and motor cycles), and cuirassiers to armoured units; while light cavalry (chasseurs a' cheval, hussars and spahis) remained as mounted sabre squadrons.[146] The theory was that mixed forces comprising these diverse units could utilise the strengths of each according to circumstances. In practice mounted troops proved unable to keep up with fast moving mechanised units over any distance.
The 39 cavalry regiments of theBritish Indian Army were reduced to 21 as the result of a series of amalgamations immediately following World War I. The new establishment remained unchanged until 1936 when three regiments were redesignated as permanent training units, each with six, still mounted, regiments linked to them. In 1938, the process of mechanization began with the conversion of a full cavalry brigade (two Indian regiments and one British) to armoured car and tank units. By the end of 1940, all of the Indian cavalry had been mechanized, initially and in the majority of cases, to motorized infantry transported in 15cwt trucks.[147] The last horsed regiment of the British Indian Army (other than theViceroy's Bodyguard and someIndian States Forces regiments) was the 19th King George's Own Lancers which had its final mounted parade atRawalpindi on 28 October 1939. This unit still exists in thePakistan Army as an armored regiment.
While most armies still maintained cavalry units at the outbreak of World War II in 1939, significant mounted action was largely restricted to the Polish, Balkan, and Soviet campaigns. Rather than charge their mounts into battle, cavalry units were either used as mounted infantry (using horses to move into position and then dismounting for combat) or as reconnaissance units (especially in areas not suited to tracked or wheeled vehicles).
A popular myth is thatPolish cavalry armed with lances charged German tanks during the September 1939 campaign. This arose from misreporting of a single clash on 1 September near Krojanty, when two squadrons of the Polish 18th Lancers armed with sabres scattered German infantry before being caught in the open by German armoured cars.[148]Two examples illustrate how the myth developed. First, because motorised vehicles were in short supply, the Poles used horses to pull anti-tank weapons into position.[149] Second, there were a few incidents when Polish cavalry was trapped by German tanks, and attempted to fight free. However, this did not mean that the Polish army chose to attack tanks with horse cavalry.[150] Later, on the Eastern Front, theRed Army did deploy cavalry units effectively against the Germans.[151]
A more correct term would be "mounted infantry" instead of "cavalry", as horses were primarily used as a means of transportation, for which they were very suitable in view of the very poor road conditions in pre-war Poland. Another myth describes Polish cavalry as being armed with both sabres and lances; lances were used for peacetime ceremonial purposes only and the primary weapon of the Polish cavalryman in 1939 was a rifle. Individual equipment did include a sabre, probably because of well-established tradition, and in the case of a melee combat this secondary weapon would probably be more effective than a rifle and bayonet. Moreover, thePolish cavalry brigade order of battle in 1939 included, apart from the mounted soldiers themselves, light and heavy machine guns (wheeled), theAnti-tank rifle, model 35, anti-aircraft weapons, anti tank artillery such as theBofors 37 mm, also light and scout tanks, etc. The last cavalry vs. cavalry mutual charge in Europe took place in Poland during theBattle of Krasnobród, when Polish and German cavalry units clashed with each other.
The last classical cavalry charge of the war took place on March 1, 1945, during theBattle of Schoenfeld by the 1st "Warsaw" Independent Cavalry Brigade. Infantry and tanks had been employed to little effect against the German position, both of which floundered in the open wetlands only to be dominated by infantry and antitank fire from the German fortifications on the forward slope of Hill 157, overlooking the wetlands. The Germans had not taken cavalry into consideration when fortifying their position which, combined with the "Warsaw"s swift assault, overran the German anti-tank guns and consolidated into an attack into the village itself, now supported by infantry and tanks.
TheItalian invasion of Greece in October 1940 saw mounted cavalry used effectively by the Greek defenders along the mountainous frontier with Albania. Three Greek cavalry regiments (two mounted and one partially mechanized) played an important role in the Italian defeat in this difficult terrain.[152]
The contribution of Soviet cavalry to the development of modern military operational doctrine and its importance in defeatingNazi Germany has been eclipsed by the higher profile of tanks and airplanes.[153] Soviet cavalry contributed significantly to the defeat of the Axis armies.[153] They were able to provide the most mobile troops available in the early stages, when trucks and other equipment were low in quality; as well as providing cover for retreating forces.
Considering their relatively limited numbers, the Soviet cavalry played a significant role in giving Germany its first real defeats in the early stages of the war. The continuing potential of mounted troops was demonstrated during theBattle of Moscow, againstGuderian and the powerful centralGerman 9th Army.Pavel Belov was given byStavka a mobile group including the elite 9th tank brigade, ski battalions,Katyusha rocket launcher battalion among others, the unit additionally received new weapons. This newly created group became the first to carry the Soviet counter-offensive in late November, when the general offensive began on 5 December. These mobile units often played major roles in both defensive and offensive operations.
Cavalry were amongst the first Soviet units to complete the encirclement in theBattle of Stalingrad, thus sealing the fate of theGerman 6th Army. Mounted Soviet forces also played a role in the encirclement of Berlin, with some Cossack cavalry units reaching theReichstag in April 1945. Throughout the war they performed important tasks such as the capture of bridgeheads which is considered one of the hardest jobs in battle, often doing so with inferior numbers. For instance the8th Guards Cavalry Regiment of the2nd Guards Cavalry Division (Soviet Union),1st Guards Cavalry Corps often fought outnumbered against elite German units.
By the final stages of the war only the Soviet Union was still fielding mounted units in substantial numbers, some in combined mechanized and horse units. The main advantage of this tactical approach was in enabling mounted infantry to keep pace with advancing tanks. Other factors favoring the retention of mounted forces included the high quality of RussianCossacks, which provided about half of all mounted Soviet cavalry throughout the war. They excelled in warfare manoeuvers, since the lack of roads limited the effectiveness of wheeled vehicles in many parts of the Eastern Front. Another consideration was that sufficient logistic capacity was often not available to support very large motorized forces, whereas cavalry was relatively easy to maintain when detached from the main army and acting on its own initiative. The main usage of the Soviet cavalry involved infiltration through front lines with subsequent deep raids, which disorganized German supply lines. Another role was the pursuit of retreating enemy forces during major front-line operations and breakthroughs.
DuringWorld War II, theRoyal Hungarian Army's hussars were typically only used to undertake reconnaissance tasks against Soviet forces, and then only in detachments of section or squadron strength.
The last documented hussar attack was conducted byLieutenant ColonelKálmán Mikecz on August 16, 1941, atNikolaev. The hussars arriving as reinforcements, were employed to break through Russian positions ahead of German troops. Thehussars equipped with swords and submachine guns broke through the Russian lines in a single attack.
An eyewitness account of the last hussar attack by Erich Kern, a German officer, was written in his memoir in 1948:[154]
… We were again in a tough fight with the desperately defensive enemy who dug himself along a high railway embankment. We've been attacked four times already, and we've been kicked back all four times. The battalion commander swore, but the company commanders were helpless. Then, instead of the artillery support we asked for countless times, a Hungarian hussar regiment appeared on the scene. We laughed. What the hell do they want here with their graceful, elegant horses? We froze at once: these Hungarians went crazy. Cavalry Squadron approached after a cavalry squadron. The command word rang. The bronze-brown, slender riders almost grew to their saddle.Their shining colonel of goldenparolis jerked his sword. Four or five armored cars cut out of the wings, and the regiment slashed across the wide plain with flashing swords in the afternoon sun. Seydlitz attacked like this once before. Forgetting all caution, we climbed out of our covers. It was all like a great equestrian movie. The first shots rumbled, then became less frequent. With astonished eyes, in disbelief, we watched as the Soviet regiment, which had so far repulsed our attacks with desperate determination, now turned around and left its positions in panic. And the triumphant Hungarians chased the Russian in front of them and shredded them with their glittering sabers. The hussar sword, it seems, was a bit much for the nerves of Russians. Now, for once, the ancient weapon has triumphed over modern equipment ....
The last mounted sabre charge by Italian cavalry occurred on August 24, 1942, atIsbuscenski (Russia), when a squadron of the Savoia Cavalry Regiment charged the 812th Siberian Infantry Regiment. The remainder of the regiment, together with the Novara Lancers made a dismounted attack in an action that ended with the retreat of the Russians after heavy losses on both sides.[155] The final Italian cavalry action occurred on October 17, 1942, in Poloj (now Croatia) by a squadron of the Alexandria Cavalry Regiment against a large group of Yugoslav partisans.
Romanian, Hungarian and Italian cavalry were dispersed or disbanded following the retreat of the Axis forces from Russia.[156] Germany still maintained some mounted (mixed with bicycles) SS and Cossack units until the last days of the War.
Finland used mounted troops against Russian forces effectively in forested terrain during theContinuation War.[157] The last Finnish cavalry unit was not disbanded until 1947.
The U.S. Army's last horse cavalry actions were fought during World War II: a) by the26th Cavalry Regiment—a small mounted regiment ofPhilippine Scouts which fought the Japanese during the retreat down the Bataan peninsula, until it was effectively destroyed by January 1942; and b) on captured German horses by the mounted reconnaissance section of the U.S. 10th Mountain Division in a spearhead pursuit of the German Army across the Po Valley in Italy in April 1945.[158] The last horsed U.S. Cavalry (theSecond Cavalry Division) were dismounted in March 1944.
All British Army cavalry regiments had been mechanised since 1 March 1942 when theQueen's Own Yorkshire Dragoons (Yeomanry) was converted to a motorised role, following mounted service against the Vichy French in Syria the previous year. The final cavalry charge by British Empire forces occurred on 21 March 1942 when a 60 strong patrol of theBurma Frontier Force encountered Japanese infantry nearToungoo airfield in centralMyanmar. TheSikhsowars of the Frontier Force cavalry, led by Captain Arthur Sandeman ofThe Central India Horse (21st King George V's Own Horse), charged in the old style with sabres and most were killed.
In the early stages of World War II, mounted units of the Mongolian People's Army were involved in theBattle of Khalkhin Gol against invading Japanese forces. Soviet forces under the command of Georgy Zhukov, together with Mongolian forces, defeated the Japanese Sixth army and effectively ended the Soviet–Japanese Border Wars. After theSoviet–Japanese Neutrality Pact of 1941, Mongolia remained neutral throughout most of the war, but its geographical situation meant that the country served as a buffer between Japanese forces and the Soviet Union. In addition to keeping around 10% of the population under arms, Mongolia provided half a million trained horses for use by the Soviet Army. In 1945 a partially mounted Soviet-MongolianCavalry Mechanized Group played a supporting role on the western flank of theSoviet invasion of Manchuria. The last active service seen by cavalry units of the Mongolian Army occurred in 1946–1948, during border clashes between Mongolia and theRepublic of China.
While most modern "cavalry" units have some historic connection with formerly mounted troops this is not always the case. The modern IrishDefence Forces (DF) includes a "Cavalry Corps" equipped with armoured cars andScorpion tracked combat reconnaissance vehicles. The DF has never included horse cavalry since its establishment in 1922 (other than a small mounted escort ofBlue Hussars drawn from the Artillery Corps when required for ceremonial occasions). However, the mystique of the cavalry is such that the name has been introduced for what was always a mechanised force.
Some engagements in late 20th and early 21st centuryguerrilla wars involved mounted troops, particularly against partisan or guerrilla fighters in areas with poor transport infrastructure. Such units were not used as cavalry but rather as mounted infantry. Examples occurred in Afghanistan,Portuguese Africa andRhodesia. The French Army used existing mounted squadrons ofSpahis to a limited extent for patrol work during the Algerian War (1954–1962). The last mounted charge by French cavalry was carried out on 14 May 1957 by a detachment of Spahis atMagoura during theAlgerian War.[159]
TheSwiss Army maintained a mounted dragoon regiment for combat purposes until 1973. ThePortuguese Army used horse mounted cavalry with some success in thewars of independence in Angola and Mozambique in the 1960s and 1970s.[160] During the 1964–1979Rhodesian Bush War theRhodesian Army created an elite mounted infantry unit calledGrey's Scouts to fight unconventional actions against the rebel forces ofRobert Mugabe andJoshua Nkomo. The horse mounted infantry of the Scouts were effective and reportedly feared by their opponents in the rebel African forces. In the 1978 to presentAfghan Civil War period there have been several instances of horse mounted combat.
Central and South American armies maintained mounted cavalry for longer than those of Asia, Europe, or North America. The Mexican Army included a number of horse mounted cavalry regiments as late as the mid-1990s and the Chilean Army had five such regiments in 1983 as mounted mountain troops.[161]
After the end of World War II, the remaining 26 Soviet cavalry divisions were mostly converted into mechanized and tank units or disbanded.[162] Meanwhile the overallRed Army became theSoviet Ground Forces in 1945. The last cavalry divisions were not disbanded until the early 1950s, with the last cavalry division, the 4th Guards Cavalry Division (II Formation, previously reduced in status from4th Guards Cavalry Corps), being disbanded in April 1955.[163]
Today theIndian Army's61st Cavalry is reported to be the largest existing horse-mounted cavalry unit still having operational potential.[164] It was raised in 1951 from the amalgamatedstate cavalry squadrons ofGwalior,Jodhpur, andMysore. While primarily utilised for ceremonial purposes, the regiment can be deployed for internal security or police roles if required.[165] The 61st Cavalry and the President's Body Guard parade in fulldress uniform inNew Delhi each year in what is probably the largest assembly of traditional cavalry still to be seen in the world. Both the Indian and the Pakistani armies maintain armoured regiments with the titles ofLancers or Horse, dating back to the 19th century.
As of 2007, the ChinesePeople's Liberation Army employed two battalions of horse-mounted border guards inXinjiang for border patrol purposes. PLA mounted units last saw action duringborder clashes withVietnam in the 1970s and 1980s, after which most cavalry units were disbanded as part of major military downsizing in the 1980s.[166] In the wake of the2008 Sichuan earthquake, there were calls[from whom?] to rebuild the army horse inventory for disaster relief in difficult terrain. Subsequent Chinese media reports[166][167][168] confirm that the PLA maintains operational horse cavalry at squadron strength in Xinjiang andInner Mongolia for scouting, logistical, and border security purposes, and one at company strength inQinghai.[169]
TheChilean Army still maintains a mixed armoured cavalry regiment, with elements of it acting as mounted mountain exploration troops, based in the city ofAngol, being part of theIII Mountain Division, [es] and another independent exploration cavalry detachment in the town ofChaitén. The rugged mountain terrain calls for the use ofspecial horses suited for that use.
TheArgentine Army has two mounted cavalry units: the Regiment of Horse Grenadiers, which performs mostly ceremonial duties but at the same time is responsible for the president's security (in this case, acting as infantry), and the 4th Mountain Cavalry Regiment (which comprises both horse and light armoured squadrons), stationed in San Martín de los Andes, where it has an exploration role as part the 6th Mountain Brigade. Most armoured cavalry units of the Army are considered successors to the old cavalry regiments from the Independence Wars, and keep their traditional names, such as Hussars, Cuirassiers, Lancers, etc., and uniforms. Equestrian training remains an important part of their tradition, especially among officers.
Ceremonial horse cavalry and armored cavalry retaining traditional titles
Cavalry or mounted gendarmerie units continue to be maintained for purely or primarily ceremonial purposes by the Algerian, Argentine, Bolivian, Brazilian, British, Bulgarian, Canadian, Chilean, Colombian, Danish, Dutch, Finnish, French, Hungarian, Indian, Italian, Jordanian, Malaysian, Mongolian Moroccan, Nepalese, Nigerian, North Korean, Omani, Pakistani, Panamanian, Paraguayan, Peruvian, Polish, Portuguese, Russian, Senegalese, Spanish, Swedish, Thai, Tunisian, Turkmenistan, United States, Uruguayan and Venezuelan armed forces.
A number of armoured regiments in theBritish Army retain the historic designations of Hussars, Dragoons, Light Dragoons, Dragoon Guards, Lancers and Yeomanry. Only theHousehold Cavalry (consisting of theLife Guards' mounted squadron, TheBlues and Royals' mounted squadron, the State Trumpeters of TheHousehold Cavalry and theHousehold Cavalry Mounted Band) are maintained for mounted (and dismounted) ceremonial duties in London.
The modernPakistan army maintains about 40 armoured regiments with the historic titles ofLancers, Cavalry or Horse. Six of these date back to the 19th century, although only the President's Body Guard remains horse-mounted.
In 2002, the Army of the Russian Federation reintroduced a ceremonial mounted squadron wearing historic uniforms.
Both the Australian and New Zealand armies follow the British practice of maintaining traditional titles (Light Horse or Mounted Rifles) for modern mechanised units. However, neither country retains a horse-mounted unit.
Severalarmored units of the modernUnited States Army retain the designation of "armored cavalry". The United States also has "air cavalry" units equipped withhelicopters. The Horse Cavalry Detachment of the U.S. Army's1st Cavalry Division, made up of active duty soldiers, still functions as an active unit, trained to approximate the weapons, tools, equipment and techniques used by the United States Cavalry in the 1880s.[172][173]
TheTurkish Armed Forces retain a ceremonial cavalry regiment, which also participates inequestrianism, following the disbandment of the operational mounted brigades during the 1960s.[174][175]
Some individualU.S. states maintain cavalry units as a part of their respectivestate defense forces. TheMaryland Defense Force includes a cavalry unit,Cavalry Troop A, which serves primarily as a ceremonial unit.[177] The unit training includes a saber qualification course based upon the 1926 U.S. Army course.[178] Cavalry Troop A also assists other Maryland agencies as a rural search and rescue asset.[178] In Massachusetts, TheNational Lancers trace their lineage to a volunteer cavalry militia unit established in 1836 and are currently organized as an official part of the Massachusetts Organized Militia.[179] The National Lancers maintain three units, Troops A, B, and C, which serve in a ceremonial role and assist in search and rescue missions.[179] In July 2004, the National Lancers were ordered into active state service to guardCamp Curtis Guild during the2004 Democratic National Convention.[179] TheGovernor's Horse Guard ofConnecticut maintains two companies which are trained in urban crowd control.[178] In 2020, theCalifornia State Guard stood up the 26th Mounted Operations Detachment, a search-and-rescue cavalry unit.[180]
From the beginning of civilization to the 20th century, ownership of heavy cavalry horses has been a mark of wealth amongst settled peoples. A cavalry horse involves considerable expense in breeding, training, feeding, and equipment, and has very little productive use except as a mode of transport.
For this reason, and because of their often decisive military role, the cavalry has typically been associated with highsocial status. This was most clearly seen in thefeudal system, where a lord was expected to enter combat armored and on horseback and bring with him an entourage of lightly armedpeasants on foot. If landlords and peasant levies came into conflict, the poorly trained footmen would be ill-equipped to defeat armored knights.
In later national armies, service as an officer in the cavalry was generally a badge of high social status. For instance prior to 1914 most officers of British cavalry regiments came from a socially privileged background and the considerable expenses associated with their role generally required private means, even after it became possible for officers of theline infantry regiments to live on their pay. Options open to poorer cavalry officers in the various European armies included service with less fashionable (though often highly professional) frontier or colonial units. These included the British Indian cavalry, the RussianCossacks or the FrenchChasseurs d'Afrique.
During the 19th and early 20th centuries most monarchies maintained a mounted cavalry element in theirroyal or imperial guards. These ranged from small units providing ceremonial escorts and palace guards, through to large formations intended for active service. The mounted escort of the Spanish Royal Household provided an example of the former and the twelve cavalry regiments of thePrussian Imperial Guard an example of the latter. In either case the officers of such units were likely to be drawn from the aristocracies of their respective societies.
Some sense of the noise and power of a cavalry charge can be gained from the 1970 filmWaterloo, which featured some 2,000 cavalrymen,[181] some of them Cossacks. It included detailed displays of the horsemanship required to manage animal and weapons in large numbers at the gallop (unlike the realbattle of Waterloo, where deep mud significantly slowed the horses).[182] TheGary Cooper movieThey Came to Cordura contains a scene of a cavalry regiment deploying from march to battle line formation. A smaller-scale cavalry charge can be seen inThe Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King (2003); although the finished scene has substantialcomputer-generated imagery, raw footage and reactions of the riders are shown in the Extended Version DVD Appendices.
The Last Samurai – a US army veteran, is hired by the Japanese emperor to train his army in the modern warfare techniques
Napoleon, cavalry units play a role in several battles. The scene of theBattle of Waterloo includes the British use of infantry squares to defend against cavalry attacks.
^War in Ancient India, 1944, p. 178, V. R. Ramachandra Dikshtar, Military art and science.
^Journal of American Oriental society, 1889, p. 257, American Oriental Society; The Social and Military Position of the Ruling Caste in Ancient India: As ..., 1972, p. 201, Edward Washburn Hopkins – Caste; Mahabharata 10.18.13; cf: Ancient Indian Civilization, 1985, p. 120, Grigoriĭ Maksimovich Bongard-Levin – History; Cf also: A History of Zoroastrianism, 1991, p. 129, Mary Boyce, Frantz Grenet.
^MBH 1.185.13; Felicitation Volume Presented to Professor Sripad Krishna Belvalkar, 1957, p. 260, Dr Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan,Shripad Krishna Belvalkar.
^Ashva.yuddha.kushalah: Mahabharata 7.7.14; See also: Vishnudharmottara Purana, Part II, Chapter 118; Post Gupta Polity (500–700 AD): A Study of the Growth of Feudal Elements and Rural Administration 1972, p. 136, Ganesh Prasad Sinha; Wisdom in the Puranas 1969, p. 64, professor Sen Sarma etc.
^Some Kṣatriya Tribes of Ancient India, 1924, p. 238, Dr B. C. Law – Kshatriyas; The Battle of Kurukshetra, 1987, p. 389, Maggi Lidchi-Grassi – Kurukshetra (India).
^History of Persian Empire, p. 232, Dr A. M. Olmstead; Arrian's Anabasis III, 8.3–6; Political History of Ancient India, 1996, p. 216, Dr Raychaudhury.
^Ashva.yuddha.kushalah: Mahabharata 7.7.14 Kumbhakonam Edition; See also: Vishnudharmottara Purana, Part II, Chapter 118; Post Gupta Polity (500–700 AD): A Study of the Growth of Feudal Elements and Rural Administration 1972, p. 136, Ganesh Prasad Sinha; Wisdom in the Puranas 1969, p. 64, prof Sen Sarma; etc.; Kashmir Polity, C. 600–1200 AD 1986, p. 237, V. N. Drabu – Political Science.
^Hindu Polity: A Constitutional History of India in Hindu Times, 1943, p. 145, Dr K. P. Jayaswal.
^i.e.:Kambojo assa.nam ayata.nam. See: Samangalavilasini, Vol I, p. 124; See also: Historie du Bouddhisme Indien, p. 110, E. Lamotte; Political History of Ancient India, 1996, p. 133 fn 6, pp. 216–220, Dr H. C. Raychaudhury, Dr B. N. Mukerjee; Some Kṣatriya Tribes of Ancient India, 1924, p. 238, Dr B. C. – Kshatriyas; Studies in Indian History and Civilization, 1962, p. 351, Dr Buddha Prakash – India.
^Age of the Nandas and Mauryas, 1967, p. 49, Dr K. A. Nilakanta Sastri.
^"Par ailleurs le Kamboja est régulièrement mentionné comme la "patrie des chevaux" (Asvanam ayatanam), et cette reputation bien etablie gagné peut-etre aux eleveurs de chevaux du Bajaur et du Swat l'appellation d'Aspasioi (du v.-p. aspa) et d'assakenoi (du skt asva "cheval")" (See: Historie du Bouddhisme Indien, p. 110, E. Lamotte; See also: Hindu Polity, A Constitutional History of India in Hindu Times, 1978, p. 140, Dr K. P. Jayswal; Political History of Ancient India, 1996, p. 133 fn 6, pp. 216–220, (Also Commentary, op. cit., p. 576, fn 22), Dr H. C. Raychaudhury, Dr B. N. Mukerjee;; History of Indian Buddhism: From the Origins to the Saka Era, 1988, p. 100 – History; East and West, 1950, pp. 28, 157–158, Istituto italiano per il Medio ed Estremo Oriente, Editor, Prof Giuseppe Tucci, Co-editors Prof Mario Bussagli, Prof Lionello Lanciotti; Panjab Past and Present, pp. 9–10, Dr Buddha Parkash; Raja Porus, 1990, Publication Bureau, Punjabi University, Patiala; History of Panjab, Vol I, (Editors): Dr Fauja Singh, Dr L. M. Josh, Publication Bureau, Panjabi University, Patiala; History of Porus, 1967, p. 89, Dr Buddha Prakash; Ancient Kamboja, People and country, 1981, pp. 271–272, 278, Dr J. L. Kamboj; These Kamboj People, 1979, pp. 119, 192; Kambojas, Through the Ages, 2005, pp. 129, 218–219, S Kirpal Singh etc.
^Ashtadhyayi 4.3.91; India as Known to Pāṇini, 1953, pp. 424, 436–439, 455–457, Dr V. S. Aggarwala.
^See: History of Punjab, Vol I, 1997, p. 225, Dr Buddha Prakash; Raja Porus, 1990, p. 9, Publication Bureau, Punjabi University Patiala.
^Kālidāsa, 1960, p. 141, Raghunath Damodar Karmarkar.
^Indian Historical Quarterly, XV-4, December 1939, p. 511 Dr H. C. Ray.
^History of Ancient Bengal, 1971, pp. 182–183, DrR. C. Majumdar.
^Robinson, Joe; Hendriks, Francis; Robinson, Janet (14 March 2015).The Last Great Cavalry Charge – The Battle of the Silver Helmets Halen 12 August 1914. Fonthill Media.ISBN978-1-78155-183-7.
^Mirouze, Laurent (2007).The French Army in the First World War – to battle 1914. Militaria. p. 253.ISBN978-3-902526-09-0.
^"The Royal Dragoon Guards 1685–1988", Regiment Issue Thirty Four, p. 45.[full citation needed]
^First World War, Willmott, H. P., Dorling Kindersley, 2003
^Stone, Norman (1975).The Eastern Front 1914–17. Scribner. p. 220.ISBN0-684-14492-1.
^Littauer, Vladimir (May 2007).Russian Hussar. Long Riders' Guild Press. p. 220.ISBN978-1-59048-256-8.
^Lucas, James (1987).Fighting Troops of the Austro-Hungarian Army 1868–1914. Hippocrene Books. p. 99.ISBN0-946771-04-9.
^Falls, Cyril; G. MacMunn; A. F. Beck (Maps) (1930).Military Operations Egypt & Palestine from the outbreak of war with Germany to June 1917. Official History of the Great War Based on Official Documents by Direction of the Historical Section of the Committee of Imperial Defence. London: HM Stationery Office.OCLC610273484. Contents. V. 1. from the outbreak of war with Germany to June 1917, + maps in separate volume. V. 2. from June 1917 to the end of the war, 2 parts + maps in separate volume.[full citation needed]
^Rodolfo Puletti, page 55 "I Lancieri di Milano 1859-1985", Serie "De Bello" Milan 1985
^"Mounted Troops", pp. 1,006-1,012, Vol. XXXIEncyclopædia Britannica, London & New York 1922
^Sumner, Ian (2014).Armies of the Russo-Polish War 1919-21. Amber Books Limited. pp. 6–17 & 12–13.ISBN978-2-35250-179-4.
^Fowler, Dr Jeffrey T. (25 November 2001).Axis Cavalry in World War II. Bloomsbury USA. p. 3.ISBN1-84176-323-3.
^Randy Steffen, page 77 "The Horse Soldier. World War I, the Peacetime Army, World War II." Volume IV, University of Oklahoma Press 1979
^Randy Steffen, page 131 "The Horse Soldier. World War I, the Peacetime Army, World War II." Volume IV, University of Oklahoma Press 1979
^Sumner, Ian (2010).The French Army 1939-45 (I). Amber Books Limited. pp. 13–14.ISBN978-2-35250-179-4.
^Jouineau, Andre (2010).Officers and Soldiers of the French Army 1940. Bloomsbury USA. pp. 36–42.ISBN978-1-85532-666-8.
^Chandler, David (1996).The Oxford History of the British Army. Oxford University Press. p. 382.ISBN0-19-285333-3.
^Zaloga, S. J. (1983).The Polish Army 1939–45. London: Osprey.ISBN0-85045-417-4.
^English, Adrian J. (May 1985).Armed Forces of Latin America:Their Histories, Development, Present Strength and Military Potential.Jane's Information Group.ISBN978-0710603210.
Ebrey PB, Walthall A, Palais JB (2006).East Asia: A Cultural, Social, and Political History. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company.ISBN978-0-6181-3384-0.OCLC61446526.
Falls, Cyril; G. MacMunn (1930).Military Operations Egypt & Palestine from the outbreak of war with Germany to June 1917. Official History of the Great War Based on Official Documents by Direction of the Historical Section of the Committee of Imperial Defence. Vol. 1. London: HM Stationery Office.OCLC610273484.
Falls, Cyril; A. F. Becke (maps) (1930).Military Operations Egypt & Palestine from June 1917 to the End of the War. Official History of the Great War Based on Official Documents by Direction of the Historical Section of the Committee of Imperial Defence. Vol. 2 Part I. London: HM Stationery Office.OCLC644354483.
Falls, Cyril; A. F. Becke (maps) (1930).Military Operations Egypt & Palestine from June 1917 to the End of the War. Official History of the Great War Based on Official Documents by Direction of the Historical Section of the Committee of Imperial Defence. Vol. 2 Part II. London: HM Stationery Office.OCLC256950972.
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