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Catholic theology is the understanding ofCatholic doctrine or teachings, and results from the studies oftheologians. It is based oncanonicalscripture, andsacred tradition, as interpreted authoritatively by themagisterium of theCatholic Church.[1] This article serves as an introduction to various topics in Catholic theology, with links to where fuller coverage is found.
Major teachings of the Catholic Church discussed in the early councils of the church are summarized invarious creeds, especially theNicene (Nicene-Constantinopolitan) Creed and theApostles' Creed. Since the 16th century the church has producedcatechisms which summarize its teachings; in 1992, the Catholic Church published the officialCatechism of the Catholic Church.[2][3]
TheCatholic Church understands the living tradition of the church to contain its doctrine on faith and morals and to be protected from error, at times throughinfallibly defined teaching.[4] The church believes inrevelation guided by theHoly Spirit through sacred scripture, developed insacred tradition and entirely rooted in the originaldeposit of faith. This developed deposit of faith is protected by the "magisterium" orCollege of Bishops at ecumenical councils overseen by the pope,[5] beginning with theCouncil of Jerusalem (c. AD 50).[6] The most recent was theSecond Vatican Council (1962 to 1965); twice in history the pope defined adogma after consultation with all the bishops without calling a council.
Formal Catholic worship is ordered by means of theliturgy, which is regulated by church authority. The celebration of theEucharist, one ofseven Catholic sacraments, is the center of Catholic worship. The church exercises control over additional forms of personalprayer anddevotion including theRosary,Stations of the Cross, andEucharistic adoration, declaring they should all derive from the Eucharist and lead back to it.[7] The church community consists of the ordainedclergy (consisting of theepiscopate, thepriesthood, and thediaconate), thelaity, and those likemonks andnuns living aconsecrated life under theirconstitutions.
According to theCatechism,Christ instituted seven sacraments and entrusted them to the Catholic Church.[8] These areBaptism,Confirmation (Chrismation), theEucharist,Penance, theAnointing of the Sick,Holy Orders andMatrimony.
The Catholic Church teaches that "The desire forGod is written in the human heart, because man is created by God and for God; and God never ceases to draw man to himself."[9] While man may turn away from God, God never stops calling man back to him.[10] Because man is created in the image and likeness of God, man can know with certainty ofGod's existence from his own human reason.[11] But while "Man's faculties make him capable of coming to a knowledge of the existence of a personal God", in order "for man to be able to enter into real intimacy with him, God willed both toreveal himself to man, and to give him thegrace of being able to welcome this revelation in faith."[12]
In summary, the church teaches: "Man isby nature and vocation a religious being. Coming from God, going toward God, man lives a fully human life only if he freely lives by his bond with God".[13]
The church teaches God revealed himself gradually, beginning in theOld Testament, and completing this revelation by sendinghis son,Jesus Christ,to Earth as a man. This revelation started withAdam and Eve,[14] and was not broken off by theiroriginal sin.[15] Rather, God promised to send a redeemer.[16] God further revealed himself throughcovenants betweenNoah andAbraham.[17][18] God deliveredthe law to Moses onMount Sinai,[19] and spoke through the Old Testamentprophets.[20] The fullness of God's revelation was made manifest through the coming of the Son of God, Jesus Christ.[21]
Creeds (from Latincredo meaning "I believe") are concise doctrinal statements or confessions, usually of religious beliefs. They began as baptismal formulas and were later expanded during theChristological controversies of the 4th and 5th centuries to become statements of faith.
TheApostles Creed (Symbolum Apostolorum) was developed between the 2nd and 9th centuries. Its central doctrines are those of the Trinity and God the Creator. Each of the doctrines found in this creed can be traced to statements current in the apostolic period. The creed was apparently used as a summary of Christian doctrine for baptismal candidates in the churches of Rome.[22]
TheNicene Creed, largely a response toArianism, was formulated at the Councils ofNicaea andConstantinople in 325 and 381 respectively,[23] and ratified as the universal creed of Christendom by theCouncil of Ephesus in 431.[24] It sets out the main principles of Catholic Christian belief.[25] This creed is recited at Sunday Masses and is the core statement of belief in many other Christian churches as well.[25][26]
TheChalcedonian Creed, developed at theCouncil of Chalcedon in 451,[27]though not accepted by theOriental Orthodox Churches,[28] taught Christ "to be acknowledged in two natures, inconfusedly, unchangeably, indivisibly, inseparably": one divine and one human, and that both natures are perfect but are neverthelessperfectly united into one person.[29]
TheAthanasian Creed says: "We worship one God in Trinity, and Trinity in Unity; neither confounding the Persons nor dividing the Substance."[30]
Christianity regards theBible, a collection ofcanonical books in two parts (theOld Testament and theNew Testament), as authoritative. It is believed by Christians to have been written by human authors under theinspiration of theHoly Spirit.[31]
Protestants believe the Bible contains allrevealed truths necessary forsalvation. This concept is known asSola scriptura.[32][page needed] Catholics do not believe the Bible contains all revealed truths necessary for salvation.
The Catholic Bible includes all books of the Jewish scriptures, theTanakh, along with additional books. This bible is organised into two parts: the books of theOld Testament primarily sourced from the Tanakh (with some variations), and the 27 books of theNew Testament containing books originally written primarily inGreek.[33] The Catholic biblical canon include other books from theSeptuagint canon, which Catholics calldeuterocanonical.[34] Protestants consider these booksapocryphal. Some versions of the Bible have a separate apocrypha section for the books not considered canonical by the publisher.[35]
Catholic theology distinguishes two senses ofScripture: the literal and the spiritual.[36] Theliteral sense of understanding scripture is the meaning conveyed by the words of Scripture and discovered byexegesis, following the rules of sound interpretation.
Thespiritual sense has three subdivisions: the allegorical, moral, andanagogical (meaningmystical or spiritual) senses.
Catholic theology adds other rules of interpretation which include:
There are sevensacraments of the church, of which the source and summit is theEucharist.[42] According to theCatechism, the sacraments were instituted by Christ and entrusted to the church.[8] They are vehicles through which God's grace flows into the person who receives them with the proper disposition.[8][43] In order to obtain the proper disposition, people are encouraged, and in some cases required, to undergo sufficient preparation before being permitted to receive certain sacraments.[44][better source needed] And in receiving the sacraments, theCatechism advises: "To attribute the efficacy of prayers or of sacramental signs to their mere external performance, apart from the interior dispositions that they demand, is to fall into superstition."[45] Participation in the sacraments, offered to them through the church, is a way Catholics obtaingrace,forgiveness of sins and formally ask for theHoly Spirit.[46] These sacraments are:Baptism,Confirmation (Chrismation), theEucharist,Penance and Reconciliation, theAnointing of the Sick,Holy Orders, andMatrimony.
In theEastern Catholic Churches, these are often called theholymysteries rather than thesacraments.[47]
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Sunday is aholy day of obligation, and Catholics are required to attendMass. At Mass, Catholics believe that they respond to Jesus' command at theLast Supper to "do this in remembrance of me."[48] In 1570 at theCouncil of Trent,Pope Pius V codified a standard book for the celebration of Mass for theRoman Rite.[49][50] Everything in this decree pertained to thepriest celebrant and his action at the altar.[50] The participation of the people was devotional rather than liturgical.[50] The Mass text was inLatin, as this was the universal language of the church.[49] Thisliturgy was called theTridentine Mass and endured universally until theSecond Vatican Council approved theMass of Paul VI, also known as the New Order of the Mass (Latin:Novus Ordo Missae), which may be celebrated either in thevernacular or in Latin.[50]
The Catholic Mass is separated into two parts. The first part is called Liturgy of the Word; readings from theOld andNew Testaments are read prior to thegospel reading and the priest'shomily. The second part is called Liturgy of the Eucharist, in which the actual sacrament of the Eucharist is celebrated.[51] Catholics regard the Eucharist as "the source and summit of the Christian life",[42] and believe that the bread and wine brought to the altar are changed, ortransubstantiated, through the power of theHoly Spirit into the true body, blood, soul and divinity of Christ.[52] Since his sacrifice on the Cross and that of the Eucharist "areone single sacrifice",[53] the church does not purport tore-sacrifice Jesus in the Mass, but rather tore-present (i.e., make present)[54] his sacrifice "in an unbloody manner".[53]
In theEastern Catholic Churches, the termDivine Liturgy is used in place ofMass, and variousEastern rites are used in place of the Roman Rite. These rites have remained more constant than has the Roman Rite, going back toearly Christian times. Eastern Catholic and Orthodox liturgies are generally quite similar.
The liturgical action is seen as transcending time and uniting the participants with those already in the heavenly kingdom. Elements in the liturgy are meant to symbolize eternal realities; they go back to early Christian traditions which evolved from the Jewish-Christian traditions of the early church.
The first part of the Liturgy, or "Liturgy of the Catechumens", has scripture readings and at times a homily. The second part derives from theLast Supper as celebrated by the early Christians. The belief is that by partaking of the Communion bread and wine, theBody andBlood of Christ, they together become the body of Christ on earth, the church.[55]
In the Latin Church, the annual calendar begins withAdvent, a time of hope-filled preparation for both the celebration ofJesus' birth and hisSecond Coming at the end of time. Readings from "Ordinary Time" follow the Christmas Season, but are interrupted by the celebration of Easter in Spring, preceded by 40 days of Lenten preparation and followed by 50 days of Easter celebration.
TheEaster (or Paschal) Triduum splits the Easter vigil of the early church into three days of celebration, of Jesusthe Lord's Supper, ofGood Friday (Jesus'passion anddeath on the cross), and of Jesus'resurrection. The season ofEastertide follows the Triduum and climaxes onPentecost, recalling the descent of the Holy Spirit upon Jesus' disciples in theupper room.[56]
TheTrinity refers to the belief in one God, in three distinctpersons orhypostases. These are referred to as "the Father" (the creator and source of all life), "theSon" (which refers toJesus), and "the Holy Spirit" (the bond of love between Father and Son, present in the hearts of humankind). Together, these three persons form a singleGodhead.[57][58][59] The wordtrias, from whichtrinity is derived, is first seen in the works ofTheophilus of Antioch. He wrote of "the Trinity of God (the Father), HisWord (the Son) and His Wisdom (Holy Spirit)".[60] The term may have been in use before this time. Afterwards, it appears inTertullian.[61][62] In the following century, the word was in general use. It is found in many passages ofOrigen.[63]
According to the doctrine, God is not divided in the sense that each person has a third of the whole; rather, each person is considered to be fully God (seePerichoresis). The distinction lies in their relations: the Father being unbegotten; the Son being eternal yetbegotten of the Father; and the Holy Spirit "proceeding" from the Father and the Son.[64] Regardless of this apparent difference in their origins, the three "persons" are eacheternal andomnipotent. This is thought by Catholics to be the revelation regarding God's nature, which Jesus came to deliver to the world and is the foundation of their belief system. According to 20th-century theologianKarl Rahner: "In God's self communication to his creation through grace and Incarnation, God really gives himself, and really appears as he is in himself." This would lead to the conclusion that we come to a knowledge of the immanent Trinity through the study of God's work in the "Economy" of creation and salvation.[65]
The central statement of Catholic faith, theNicene Creed, begins, "I believe in one God, the Father Almighty, maker of heaven and earth, of all things visible and invisible." Thus, Catholics believe that God is not a part of nature, but that God created nature and all that exists. God is viewed as a loving and caring God who is active both in the world and in people's lives, and desires humankind to love one another.[66]
Catholics believe that Jesus isGod incarnate and "true God and true man" (or bothfully divine and fully human). Jesus, having become fully human, suffered humankind's pain, finally succumbed to his injuries and gave up his spirit when he said, "it is finished." He sufferedtemptations but did notsin.[67] As true God, hedefeated death androse to life again. According to theNew Testament, "God raised Him from the dead,"[68] heascended toHeaven, is "seated at the right hand of the Father"[69] and willreturn[70] to fulfill the rest ofMessianic prophecy, including theresurrection of the dead, theLast Judgment, and final establishment of theKingdom of God.
According to thegospels ofMatthew andLuke, Jesus wasconceived by theHoly Spirit andborn fromthe Virgin Mary. Little of Jesus's childhood is recorded in thecanonical gospels, butinfancy gospels were popular in antiquity. In comparison, his adulthood, especially the week before his death, are well documented in the gospels contained within the New Testament. The biblical accounts ofJesus's ministry include:his baptism,healings, teaching, and "going about doing good".[71]
Jesus told his apostles that after hisdeath andresurrection, he would send them the "Advocate" (Greek:Παράκλητος,romanized: Paraclete:Latin:Paracletus), the "Holy Spirit", who, he told his disciples, "will teach you everything and remind you of all that I told you".[72][73] In theGospel of Luke, Jesus tells his disciples "If you then, who are evil, know how to give good gifts to your children, how much more will the heavenly Father give the Holy Spirit to those who ask him!"[74] TheNicene Creed states that the Holy Spirit is one with God the Father and God the Son (Jesus); thus, for Catholics, receiving the Holy Spirit is receiving God, the source of all that is good.[75] Catholics formally ask for and receive the Holy Spirit through the sacrament ofconfirmation. Sometimes[by whom?] called the sacrament of "Christian maturity", confirmation is believed to bring an increase and deepening of the grace received atbaptism,[74] to which it was cojoined in theearly Church. Spiritual graces orgifts of the Holy Spirit can include wisdom to see and follow God's plan, right judgment, love for others, boldness in witnessing the faith, and rejoicing in the presence of God.[76] The correspondingfruits of the Holy Spirit are love, joy, peace, patience, kindness, goodness, faithfulness, gentleness, and self-control.[76] To bevalidly confirmed, a person must be in a state ofgrace, which means that they cannot be conscious of having committed amortal sin. They must also have prepared spiritually for the sacrament, chosen a sponsor orgodparent for spiritual support, and selected asaint to be their special patron.[74]
Soteriology is the branch of doctrinal theology that deals withsalvation throughChrist.[77] Eternal life,divine life, cannot bemerited but is a free gift of God. The crucifixion of Jesus is explained as anatoningsacrifice, which, in the words of theGospel of John, "takes away the sins of the world". One's reception of salvation is related tojustification.[78]
According to church teaching, in an event known as the "fall of the angels", a number of angels chose to rebel against God and his reign.[79][80][81] The leader of this rebellion has been given many names including "Lucifer" (meaning "light bearer" in Latin), "Satan", and thedevil. Thesin of pride, considered one ofseven deadly sins, is attributed to Satan for desiring to be God's equal.[82] According toGenesis, afallen angel tempted the first humans,Adam and Eve, who then sinned, bringing suffering and death into the world. TheCatechism states:
The account of the fall in Genesis 3 uses figurative language, but affirms a primeval event at the beginning of the history of man.
— CCC § 390[79]
Original sin does not have the character of a personal fault in any of Adam's descendants. It is a deprivation of original holiness and justice, but human nature has not been totally corrupted: it is wounded in the natural powers proper to it, subject to ignorance, suffering and the dominion of death, and inclined to sin—an inclination to evil that is called concupiscence.
— CCC § 405[81]
Christians classify certain behaviors and acts to be "sinful," which means that these certain acts are a violation of conscience or divine law. Catholics make a distinction between two types of sin.[83]Mortal sin is a "grave violation of God's law" that "turns man away from God",[84] and if it is not redeemed by repentance it can cause exclusion from Christ's kingdom and the eternal death of hell.[85]
In contrast,venial sin (meaning "forgivable" sin) "does not set us in direct opposition to the will and friendship of God"[86] and, although still "constituting a moral disorder",[87] does not deprive the sinner of friendship with God, and consequently the eternal happiness of heaven.[86]
In theOld Testament, God promised to send his people a savior.[88] The church believes that this savior was Jesus whomJohn the Baptist called "the lamb of God who takes away the sin of the world". The Nicene Creed refers to Jesus as "the only begotten son of God, ... begotten, not made, consubstantial with the Father. Through him all things were made." In a supernatural event called theIncarnation, Catholics believe God came down from heaven for our salvation, became man through the power of the Holy Spirit and was born of a virgin Jewish girl namedMary. They believe Jesus' mission on earth included giving people his word and example to follow, as recorded in the fourGospels.[89] The church teaches that following the example of Jesus helps believers to grow more like him, and therefore to true love, freedom, and the fullness of life.[90][91]
The focus of a Christian's life is a firm belief inJesus as theSon of God and the "Messiah" or "Christ". The title "Messiah" comes from theHebrew word מָשִׁיחַ (māšiáħ) meaninganointed one. The Greek translationΧριστός (Christos) is the source of the English word "Christ".[92]
Christians believe that, as the Messiah, Jesus wasanointed by God as ruler and savior of humanity, and hold that Jesus' coming was the fulfillment ofmessianic prophecies of theOld Testament. The Christian concept of the Messiah differs significantly fromthe contemporary Jewish concept. The core Christian belief is that, throughthe death and resurrection of Jesus,sinful humans can be reconciled to God and thereby are offered salvation and the promise ofeternal life in heaven.[93]
Catholics believe in the resurrection of Jesus. According to theNew Testament,Jesus, the central figure of Christianity, wascrucified, died, buried within a tomb, and resurrected three days later.[94] The New Testament mentions severalresurrection appearances of Jesus on different occasions to histwelve apostles and disciples, including "more than five hundred brethren at once",[95] before Jesus'Ascension. Jesus's death and resurrection are the essential doctrines of the Christian faith, and are commemorated by Christians duringGood Friday andEaster, as well as on each Sunday and in each celebration of the Eucharist, thePaschal feast. Arguments over death and resurrection claims occur at many religiousdebates andinterfaith dialogues.[96]
AsPaul the Apostle, an early Christian convert, wrote, "If Christ was not raised, then all our preaching is useless, and your trust in God is useless".[97][98] The death and resurrection of Jesus are the most important events inChristian Theology, as they form the point in scripture where Jesus gives his ultimate demonstration that he has power over life and death and thus the ability to give peopleeternal life.[99]
Generally, Christian churches accept and teach the New Testament account of the resurrection of Jesus.[100][101] Some modern scholars use the belief of Jesus' followers in the resurrection as a point of departure for establishing the continuity of the historical Jesus and the proclamation of the early church.[102] Someliberal Christians do not accept a literal bodily resurrection,[103][104] but hold to a convincing interior experience of Jesus' Spirit in members of the early church.
The church teaches that as signified by thepassion of Jesus and hiscrucifixion, all people have an opportunity for forgiveness and freedom from sin, and so can be reconciled to God.[88][105]
Sinning according to the Greek word in scripture,amartia, "falling short of the mark", succumbing to our imperfection: we always remain on the road to perfection in this life.[86] People can sin by failing to obey theTen Commandments, failing to love God, and failing to love other people. Some sins are more serious than others, ranging from lesser,venial sins, to grave,mortal sins that sever a person's relationship with God.[86][106][107]
The operation and effects of grace are understood differently by different traditions. Catholicism and Eastern Orthodoxy teach the necessity of thefree will to cooperate with grace.[108] This does not mean a Christian coming to God on their own and then cooperate with grace, asSemipelagianism, considered by the Catholic Church as an early Christianheresy, postulates. Churches teach thathuman nature is not evil, since God creates no evil thing, but humanity continues in or is inclined to sin (concupiscence). Grace from God is needed to be able to "repent and believe in the gospel".Reformed theology, by contrast, teaches that people are completelyincapable of self-redemption to the point human nature itself is evil, but the grace of God overcomeseven the unwilling heart.[109]Arminianism takes asynergistic approach whileLutheran doctrine teaches justification by grace alone through faith alone, though "a common understanding of the doctrine of justification" has been reached with some Lutheran theologians.[110]
According to Catholicism, forgiveness of sins and purification can occur during life – for example, in the sacraments ofBaptism[111] andReconciliation.[112] However, if this purification is not achieved in life, venial sins can still be purified after death.[113]
The sacrament ofAnointing of the Sick is performed only by a priest, since it involves elements of forgiveness of sin. The priest anoints with oil the head and hands of the ill person while saying the prayers of the church.[114]
People can be cleansed from all personal sins throughBaptism.[115] This sacramental act of cleansing admits one as a full member of the church and is only conferred once in a person's lifetime.[115]
TheCatholic Church considers baptism so important "parents are obliged to see that their infants are baptised within the first few weeks" and, "if the infant is in danger of death, it is to be baptised without any delay."[116] It declares: "The practice of infant Baptism is an immemorial tradition of the Church. There is explicit testimony to this practice from the second century on, and it is quite possible that, from the beginning of the apostolic preaching, when whole 'households' received baptism, infants may also have been baptized."[117]
At theCouncil of Trent, on 15 November 1551, the necessity of asecond conversion afterbaptism was delineated:[118]
Thissecond conversion is an uninterrupted task for the whole Church who, clasping sinners to her bosom, is at once holy and always in need of purification, and follows constantly the path of penance and renewal. Jesus' call to conversion and penance, like that of the prophets before Him, does not aim first at outward works, "sackcloth and ashes," fasting and mortification, but at the conversion of the heart, interior conversion. (CCC 1428[119] and 1430[120])
David MacDonald, a Catholicapologist, has written in regard to paragraph 1428, that "this endeavor of conversion is not just a human work. It is the movement of a "contrite heart," drawn and moved bygrace to respond to the merciful love of God who loved us first."[121]
Since Baptism can only be received once, the sacrament ofPenance or Reconciliation is the principal means by which Catholics obtain forgiveness for subsequent sin and receive God's grace and assistance not to sin again. This is based on Jesus' words to his disciples in theGospel of John 20:21–23.[122] A penitent confesses his sins to a priest who may then offer advice or impose a particular penance to be performed. The penitent then prays anact of contrition and the priest administersabsolution, formally forgiving the person's sins.[123] A priest is forbidden under penalty ofexcommunication to reveal any matter heard under theseal of the confessional. Penance helps prepare Catholics before they can validly receive the Holy Spirit in the sacraments ofConfirmation (Chrismation) and theEucharist.[124][125][126]
The Nicene Creed ends with, "We look for the resurrection of the dead and the life of the world to come." Accordingly, the church teaches each person will appear before the judgment seat of Christ immediately after death and receive aparticular judgment based on the deeds of their earthly life.[127] Chapter 25:35–46 of theGospel of Matthew underpins the Catholic belief that a day will also come when Jesus will sit in a universal judgment of all humankind.[128][129] Thefinal judgment will bring an end to human history. It will also mark the beginning of a new heaven and earth in which righteousness dwells and God will reign forever.[130]
There are three states of afterlife in Catholic belief.Heaven is a time of glorious union with God and a life of unspeakable joy that lasts forever.[127] Purgatory is a temporary state of purification for those who, although saved, are not free enough from sin to enter directly into heaven. It is a state requiring purgation of sin through God's mercy aided by the prayers of others.[127] Finally, those who freely chose a life of sin and selfishness, were not sorry for their sins, and had no intention of changing their ways go tohell, an everlasting separation from God. The church teaches no one is condemned to hell without freely deciding to reject God's love.[127] Godpredestines no one to hell and no one can determine whether anyone else has been condemned.[127] Catholicism teaches that God's mercy is such that a person can repent even at the point of death and be saved, like the good thief who was crucified next to Jesus.[127][131]
At thesecond coming of Christ at theend of time, all who have died will beresurrected bodily from the dead for theLast Judgment, whereupon Jesus will fully establish theKingdom of God in fulfillment ofscriptural prophecies.[132][133]
The Catholic Church teaches that the fate of those in purgatory can be affected by the actions of the living.[135]
In the same context there is mention of the practice ofindulgences. An indulgence is a remission before God of the temporal punishment due to sins whose guilt has already been forgiven.[136] Indulgences may be obtained for oneself, or on behalf of Christians who have died.[137]
Prayers for the dead and indulgences have been envisioned as decreasing the "duration" of time the dead would spend in purgatory. Traditionally, most indulgences were measured in term of days, "quarantines" (i.e. 40-day periods as for Lent), or years, meaning that they were equivalent to that length of canonical penance on the part of a living Christian.[138] When the imposition of such canonical penances of a determinate duration fell into desuetude these expressions were sometimes popularly misinterpreted as reduction of that much time of a person's stay in purgatory.[138] (The concept of time, like that of space, is of doubtful applicability to purgatory.) InPope Paul VI's revision of the rules concerning indulgences, these expressions were dropped, and replaced by the expression "partial indulgence", indicating that the person who gained such an indulgence for a pious action is granted, "in addition to the remission of temporal punishment acquired by the action itself, an equal remission of punishment through the intervention of the Church."[139]
Historically, the practice of granting indulgences and the widespread[140] associated abuses, which led to their being seen as increasingly bound up with money, with criticisms being directed against the "sale" of indulgences, were a source of controversy that was the immediate occasion of theProtestant Reformation in Germany and Switzerland.[141]
The Catholic Church teaches that it is theone, holy, catholic, and apostolic Church founded by Jesus. Concerning non-Catholics, theCatechism of the Catholic Church, drawing on the documentLumen gentium fromVatican II, explains the statement "Outside the Church there is no salvation":
Reformulated positively, this statement means that all salvation comes from Christ the Head through the Church which is his Body.
Basing itself on Scripture and Tradition, the Council teaches that the Church, a pilgrim now on earth, is necessary for salvation: the one Christ is the mediator and the way of salvation; he is present to us in his body which is the Church. He himself explicitly asserted the necessity of faith and Baptism, and thereby affirmed at the same time the necessity of the Church which men enter through Baptism as through a door. Hence they could not be saved who, knowing that the Catholic Church was founded as necessary by God through Christ, would refuse either to enter it or to remain in it.
This affirmation is not aimed at those who, through no fault of their own, do not know Christ and his Church [...] but who nevertheless seek God with a sincere heart, and, moved by grace, try in their actions to do his will as they know it through the dictates of their conscience – those too may achieve eternal salvation.
Although in ways known to himself God can lead those who, through no fault of their own, are ignorant of the Gospel, to that faith without which it is impossible to please him, the Church still has the obligation and also the sacred right to evangelize all men.[142]
Catholics believe the Catholic Church is the continuing presence of Jesus on earth.[143] Jesus told his disciples "Abide in me, and I in you. [...] I am the vine, you are the branches".[144] Thus, for Catholics, the term "Church" refers not merely to a building or exclusively to the ecclesiastical hierarchy, but first and foremost to the people of God who abide in Jesus and form the different parts of hisspiritual body,[145][146] which together composes the worldwide Christian community.
Catholics believe the church exists simultaneously on earth(Church militant), inPurgatory (Church suffering), and in Heaven (Church triumphant); thus Mary, the mother of Jesus, and the other saints are alive and part of the living church.[147] This unity of the church in heaven and on earth is called the "communion of saints".[148][149]
Section 8 of theSecond Vatican Council's dogmatic constitution on the Church,Lumen gentium, states: "this Church constituted and organized in the world as a society, subsists in the Catholic Church, which is governed by the successor of Peter and by the Bishops in communion with him, although many elements of sanctification and of truth are found outside of its visible structure. These elements, as gifts belonging to the Church of Christ, are forces impelling towardcatholic unity."
Catholics believe that the church (community of Christians) exists both on earth and in heaven simultaneously, and thus the Virgin Mary and the Saints are alive and part of the living church. Prayers and devotions to Mary and the saints are common practices in Catholic life. These devotions are notworship, since only God is worshiped. The church teaches the Saints "do not cease to intercede with the Father for us. [...] So by their fraternal concern is our weakness greatly helped."[149]
Catholics venerate Mary with many titles such as "Blessed Virgin","Mother of God", "Help of Christians", "Mother of the Faithful". She is given special honor and devotion above all other saints but this honor and devotion differs essentially from the adoration given to God.[150] Catholics do not worship Mary but honor her as mother of God, mother of the church, and as a spiritual mother to each believer in Christ. She is called the greatest of the saints, the first disciple, andQueen of Heaven (Rev. 12:1). Catholic belief encourages following her example of holiness. Prayers and devotions asking for her intercession, such as theRosary, theHail Mary, and theMemorare are common Catholic practice. The church devotes several liturgical feasts to Mary, mainly theImmaculate Conception,Mary, Mother of God,the Visitation,the Assumption, the Nativity of the Blessed Virgin Mary; and in the Americas the Feast ofOur Lady of Guadalupe. Pilgrimages to Marian shrines likeLourdes, France, andFátima, Portugal, are also a common form of devotion and prayer.
Men become bishops, priests ordeacons through the sacrament ofHoly Orders. Candidates to the priesthood must have a college degree in addition to another four years of theological training, including pastoral theology. The Catholic Church, following the example of Christ and Apostolic tradition, ordains only males.[151] The church teaches that, apart from ministry reserved for priests, women should participate in all aspects in the church's life and leadership[152][153]
Thebishops are believed to possess the fullness of Catholic priesthood; priests and deacons participate in the ministry of the bishop. As a body, theCollege of Bishops are considered the successors of the Apostles.[154][155] The pope, cardinals, patriarchs, primates, archbishops andmetropolitans are all bishops and members of the Catholic Church episcopate or College of Bishops. Only bishops can perform the sacrament of holy orders.
Many bishops head adiocese, which is divided intoparishes. A parish is usually staffed by at least one priest. Beyond their pastoral activity, a priest may perform other functions, including study, research, teaching or office work. They may also berectors orchaplains. Other titles or functions held by priests include those ofArchimandrite,Canon Secular or Regular,Chancellor,Chorbishop, Confessor, Dean of a Cathedral Chapter, Hieromonk, Prebendary, Precentor, etc.
Permanent deacons, those who do not seek priestly ordination, preach and teach. They may also baptize, lead the faithful in prayer, witness marriages, and conduct wake and funeral services.[156] Candidates for the diaconate go through a diaconate formation program and must meet minimum standards set by the bishops' conference in their home country. Upon completion of their formation program and acceptance by their local bishop, candidates receive the sacrament of Holy Orders. In August 2016Pope Francis established theStudy Commission on the Women's Diaconate, to determine whether ordaining women as deacons should be revived. This would include the deacon's role of preaching at the Eucharist.
While deacons may be married, only celibate men are ordained as priests in theLatin Church.[157][158] Protestant clergy who have converted to the Catholic Church are sometimes excepted from this rule.[159] TheEastern Catholic Churches ordain both celibate andmarried men.[159] Within the lands of theUkrainian Greek Catholic Church, the largest Eastern Catholic Church, where 90% of thediocesan priests in Ukraine aremarried,[160] priests' children often became priests and married within their social group, establishing atightly knit hereditary caste.[161] All rites of the Catholic Church maintain the ancient tradition that, after ordination, marriage is not allowed.[162] A married priest whose wife dies may not remarry.[162] Men with "transitory" homosexual leanings may be ordained deacons following three years of prayer and chastity, but men with "deeply rooted homosexual tendencies" who are sexually active cannot be ordained.[163]
Apostolic succession is the belief that the pope and Catholicbishops are the spiritual successors of the original twelve apostles, through the historically unbroken chain of consecration (see:Holy orders). The pope is the spiritual head and leader of the Catholic Church who makes use of theRoman Curia to assist him in governing. He is elected by theCollege of Cardinals who may choose from any male member of the church but who must be ordained a bishop before taking office. Since the 15th century, a current cardinal has always been elected.[164]TheNew Testament contains warnings against teachings considered to be only masquerading as Christianity,[165] and shows how reference was made to the leaders of the Church to decide what was true doctrine.[166] The Catholic Church believes it is the continuation of those who remained faithful to the apostolic leadership and rejected false teachings.[167] Catholic belief is that the Church will never defect from the truth, and bases this on Jesus' telling Peter "the gates of hell will not prevail against" the Church.[168] In theGospel of John, Jesus states, "I have much more to tell you, but you cannot bear it now. But when he comes, the Spirit of truth, he will guide you to all truth".[169]
Regarding clerical celibacy, theCatechism of the Catholic Church states:
All the ordained ministers of the Latin Church, with the exception of permanent deacons, are normally chosen from among men of faith who live a celibate life and who intend to remain celibate "for the sake of the kingdom of heaven." (Matthew 19:12) Called to consecrate themselves with undivided heart to the Lord and to "the affairs of the Lord," (1 Corinthians 7:32) they give themselves entirely to God and to men. Celibacy is a sign of this new life to the service of which the church's minister is consecrated; accepted with a joyous heart celibacy radiantly proclaims the Reign of God.
In the Eastern Churches, a different discipline has been in force for many centuries. While bishops are chosen solely from among celibates, married men can be ordained as deacons and priests. This practice has long been considered legitimate; these priests exercise a fruitful ministry within their communities. Moreover, priestly celibacy is held in great honor in the Eastern Churches and many priests have freely chosen it for the sake of the Kingdom of God. In the East as in the West a man who has already received the sacrament of Holy Orders can no longer marry.[170]
The Catholic Church's discipline of mandatorycelibacy for priests within the Latin Church (while allowing very limited individual exceptions) has been criticized for not following either theProtestant Reformation practice, which rejects mandatory celibacy, or theEastern Catholic Churches's andEastern Orthodox Churches's practice, which requires celibacy for bishops andpriestmonks and excludes marriage by priests after ordination, but does allow married men to be ordained to the priesthood.
In July 2006, BishopEmmanuel Milingo created the organizationMarried Priests Now![171] Responding to Milingo's November 2006 consecration of bishops, the Vatican stated "The value of the choice of priestly celibacy [...] has been reaffirmed."[172]
Conversely, some young men in the United States are increasingly entering formation for the priesthood because of the long-held, traditional teaching on priestly celibacy.[173]
According to theInternational Theological Commission,[174] Roman Catholic theologians do recognize and obey to the Epicopate Magisterium. Theologians collaborate with bishops to the redaction of Magisterium's documents, while bishops dialogue, intervene, and, if necessary, censor the theologians' works.
Bishops support theological faculties and theologians' associations, and take part to their reunions and activities.
Roman Catholic theologians collaborate each other in the form of the Medievalquaestio or with apeer review and reciprocal correction of their writings. They organize and participate to conferences and events together with specialists of different matters or religions, trying to find what of true and holy exist in non-Christian religions.
Roman Catholic theologians contribute to the daily life of the Church, interpret and help believers on understanding the truth that God reveals directly to His people (the so-calledsensus fidelium), paying attention to their necessities and comments.
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Catholic social teaching is based on the teaching of Jesus and commits Catholics to the welfare of all others. Although the Catholic Church operates numerous social ministries throughout the world, individual Catholics are also required to practice spiritual and corporalworks of mercy. Corporal works of mercy include feeding the hungry, welcoming strangers, immigrants or refugees, clothing the naked, taking care of the sick and visiting those in prison. Spiritual works require Catholics to share their knowledge with others, comfort those who suffer, have patience, forgive those who hurt them, give advice and correction to those who need it, and pray for the living and the dead.[128]
Today, the church's official position remains a focus ofcontroversy and is non-specific, stating only thatfaith andscientific findings regardinghuman evolution are not in conflict, specifically:[175] the church allows for the possibility that the human body developed from previous biological forms but it was by God's special providence that the immortal soul was given to humankind.[176]
This view falls into the spectrum of viewpoints that are grouped under the concept oftheistic evolution (which is itself opposed by several other significant points-of-view; seeCreation–evolution controversy for further discussion).
TheEastern Catholic Churches have as their theological, spiritual, andliturgical patrimony the traditions ofEastern Christianity. Thus, there are differences in emphasis, tone, and articulation of various aspects of Catholic theology between the Eastern and Latin churches, as inMariology. Likewise, medieval Westernscholasticism, that ofThomas Aquinas in particular, has had little reception in the East.
While Eastern Catholics respectpapal supremacy, and largely hold the same theological beliefs as Latin Catholics, Eastern theology differs on specific Marian beliefs. The traditional Eastern expression of the doctrine of theAssumption of Mary, for instance, is theDormition of the Theotokos, which emphasizes her falling asleep to be later assumed into heaven.[177]
The doctrine of theImmaculate Conception is a teaching of Eastern origin, but is expressed in the terminology of the Western Church.[178] Eastern Catholics, though they do not observe the WesternFeast of the Immaculate Conception, have no difficulty affirming it or even dedicating their churches to theVirgin Mary under this title.[179]
The beliefs of other Christian denominations differ from those of Catholics to varying degrees.Eastern Orthodox belief differs mainly with regard topapal infallibility, thefilioque clause, and the doctrine of theImmaculate Conception, but is otherwise quite similar.[180][181]Protestant churches vary in beliefs, but generally differ from Catholics regarding the authority of the pope and church tradition, as well as the role ofMary and thesaints, the role of thepriesthood, and issues pertaining tograce,good works, andsalvation.[182] Thefivesolae were one attempt to express these differences.
Note: "CIC 1983" stands for the1983Code of Canon Law (from itsLatin name,Codex Iuris Canonici); canons are cited thus: "CIC 1983, c. ###".
The 'synod' or, in Latin, 'council' (the modern distinction making a synod something less than a council was unknown in antiquity) became an indispensable way of keeping a common mind, and helped to keep maverick individuals from centrifugal tendencies. During the third century synodal government became so developed that synods met not only at times of crisis but on a regular basis every year, normally between Easter and Pentecost.
In Acts 15 scripture recorded the apostles meeting in synod to reach a common policy about the Gentile mission.
I think that greater common ground can be found if we compare the Evangelical "Born Again" experience to the Catholic "Second Conversion" experience which is when a Catholic surrenders to Jesus with an attitude of "Jesus, take my will and my life, I give everything to you." This is a spontaneous thing that happens during the journey of faithful Catholics who "get it." Yup, the Catholic Church teaches a personal relationship with Christ: TheCatechism says: 1428 Christ's call to conversion continues to resound in the lives of Christians. This second conversion is an uninterrupted task for the whole Church who, "clasping sinners to her bosom, [is] at once holy and always in need of purification, [and] follows constantly the path of penance and renewal." This endeavor of conversion is not just a human work. It is the movement of a "contrite heart," drawn and moved by grace to respond to the merciful love of God who loved us first. 1430 Jesus' call to conversion and penance, like that of the prophets before Him, does not aim first at outward works, "sackcloth and ashes," fasting and mortification, but at the conversion of the heart, interior conversion. The Pope and the Catechism are two of the highest authorities in the Church. They are telling us to get personal with Jesus.
The difference between the discipleship of the Twelve and the discipleship of the women is obvious; the tasks assigned to each group are quite different. Yet Luke makes clear—and the other Gospels also show this in all sorts of ways—that "many" women belonged to the more intimate community of believers and that their faith—filled following of Jesus was an essential element of that community, as would be vividly illustrated at the foot of the Cross and the Resurrection.
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