| Catholic–Protestant relations | |
|---|---|
| Separations | Reformation (16th century) |
| Members | Catholic: 1.313 billion (2017, self-declared)[1] Protestant: 1.17 billion (2024)[2] |
 |
| Part ofa series on the |
| Catholic Church |
|---|
 St. Peter's Basilica, Vatican City |
| Overview |
Miscellaneous |
Links and resources |
 Catholic Church portal |
| Part ofa series on |
| Protestantism |
|---|
 |
 Christianity portal |
| Part ofa series on |
| Christianity |
|---|
 |
Catholic–Protestant relations refers to thesocial, political andtheological relations and dialogue betweenRoman CatholicChristians andProtestant Christians.
This relationship began in the 16th century with the beginning of theReformation and thereby Protestantism. A number of factors contributed to the Protestant Reformation – namely, disagreement on thenature of salvation and by extension a number of doctrines including thesale of indulgences and more. These disputes led to aschism whereby Protestants chose to split from the Roman Catholic Church, though often still defining themselves ascatholic churches, and resulted in theCouncil of Trent (1545–1563) which clarified the Catholic approach to Protestantism from then on, declaring all forms of Protestantismheretical. A series of significant events followed whichdivided Europe and culminated in a number of states transitioning from Catholicism to Protestantism as theirstate religion. However, many remained Catholic, and some areas reverted to the Catholic religion as a result of theCounter-Reformation. Much of the schism and the events it caused can be categorised as violent and tumultuous. The work of theSecond Vatican Council in the early 1960s recommended terms such asseparated brethren to foster a greater emphasis on Christian unity.
Catholic–Protestant theological dissent was birthed in 1517 with the posting ofMartin Luther'sNinety-five Theses which outline ninety-five objections against Catholic doctrine. These included distinction betweenclergy andlaity, the Catholic Church's monopoly onscriptural interpretation, thesale of indulgences, the nature ofsalvation, and more.[3]
Luther's understanding of salvation was one of the radical departures fromCatholic dogma. Luther highlighted thatChristian salvation was afree gift from God which led him to criticise thesale of indulgences as a means by which one can attainheaven. He stressed the importance of a faith-oriented process of salvation, distinct from his view of theCatholic works-oriented salvation. This also led to a shift in the understanding ofgrace.[3] This Protestant doctrine is known assola fide ("faith alone").[4]
French attorneyJohn Calvin developed theReformed theology of salvation. While Luther maintained thatsalvation was available to all, Calvin introduced the doctrine ofpredestination. Based on the idea ofhuman's sin-enslaved will, andsalvation being the sole work of God (not man), Calvin insisted thatcertain individuals were predestined for heaven and others were not.[5]
A significant foundation for both parties' doctrines is the nature of their authority. The Protestant positions consists in either holdingscripture to be the sole foundation of Christian doctrine (as with e.g.Lutheranism), or holding thatscripture is the primary source of Christian doctrine (as with e.g.Anglicanism andMethodism).[6][7][8][9][10] This has led to heavy criticism of the Catholic Church's position which places scripture on par withSacred Tradition, with Catholics considering both asdivinely revealed and binding.[10]
The 16th century began theReformation which resulted in the formation ofProtestantism as a distinct entity toCatholicism. In response, the Catholic Church began its own reformation process known as the "Counter-Reformation" which culminated in theCouncil of Trent. This council was responsible for several practical changes and doctrinal clarifications.[11] In spite of this, the two parties remained notably dissimilar.
After years of the spread ofMartin Luther's ideas, Protestants submitted their statement of belief at theDiet of Augsburg (1530).[12]
In 1540Pope Paul III approved theorder of theSociety of Jesus (or "Jesuits") which was created largely to combat Protestantism.[13]
TheRegensburg Reconciliation (1541) was a failed attempt by Catholics andLutheran Protestants to reunite.[12]
The "traditionally Roman" nations ofFrance,Spain andItaly endured theRoman Inquisitions as of 1542. The inquisitions were aimed at all those considered heretical by the Catholic Church but predominately targeted Protestants as it was the most prominent. Technically the Church itself never executed heretics (asCanon Law forbade the shedding of blood). Rather,heretics were handed over to civil authorities for punishment.[14]
Disputes between the Catholic Emperor ofGermany and theprinces thereof resulted in theSchmalkaldic War (1547). Protestants were defeated, but later on Protestantism became legally recognised as a valid religion.[12]
In 1555 thePeace of Augsburg allowed Catholics and Lutherans tofollow the faith of their ruler – regardless of what that may be – within Germany.[15]
The Reformation in France took on a unique flavour which lacked the public, State and church support found elsewhere in Europe. The firstFrench Protestants were subject to persecution in the form of death or exile. From 1562 conflict raged between the ProtestantHuguenots and Catholics. In 1589, ProtestantHenry IV succeeded the throne raising the hopes of French Protestants. However, any reforms he may have intended to make were shattered by an alliance between French Catholics and the king ofSpain who forced him to convert. The 1598Edict of Nantes gave Huguenots the right to practice freely while retaining Catholicism as the nation's official religion.[16]
The Netherlands was quick to embrace the Reformation and soon assumed a Protestant identity. Though it faced opposition byits ruling power, Spain, theDutch independence movement dispelled with Spanish imposition and allowed for Protestant development.[16]
All ofScandinavia ultimately adopted Lutheranism over the course of the 16th century, as the monarchs of Denmark (who also ruled Norway and Iceland) and Sweden (who also ruled Finland) converted to that faith.
In Sweden, the Reformation was spearheaded byGustav Vasa, elected king in 1523, with major contributions byOlaus Petri, a Swedish clergyman. Friction with the pope over the latter's interference in Swedish ecclesiastical affairs led to the discontinuance of any official connection between Sweden and the papacy since 1523. Four years later, at theDiet of Västerås, the king succeeded in forcing the diet to accept his dominion over the national church. The king was given possession of all church property, church appointments required royal approval, the clergy were subject to the civil law, and the "pure Word of God" was to be preached in the churches and taught in the schools—effectively granting official sanction to Lutheran ideas. Theapostolic succession was retained in Sweden during the Reformation. The adoption of Lutheranism was also one of the main reasons for the eruption of theDacke War, a peasants uprising in Småland.
Under the reign ofFrederick I (1523–33), Denmark remained officially Catholic.[17] Frederick initially pledged to persecute Lutherans,[18] yet he quickly adopted a policy of protecting Lutheran preachers and reformers, of whom the most famous wasHans Tausen.[17] During his reign, Lutheranism made significant inroads among the Danish population.[17] In 1526, Frederick forbade papal investiture of bishops in Denmark and in 1527 ordered fees from new bishops be paid to the crown, making Frederick the head of the church of Denmark.[17] Frederick's son, Christian, was openly Lutheran, which prevented his election to the throne upon his father's death. In 1536, following his victory in theCount's War, he became king asChristian III and continued theReformation of the state church with assistance fromJohannes Bugenhagen. By the Copenhagen recess of October 1536, the authority of the Catholic bishops was terminated.[19]
Luther's influence had already reachedIceland before King Christian's decree. TheGermans fished near Iceland's coast, and theHanseatic League engaged in commerce with the Icelanders. These Germans raised a Lutheran church inHafnarfjörður as early as 1533. Through German trade connections, many youngIcelanders studied inHamburg.[20] In 1538, when the kingly decree of the new Church ordinance reached Iceland, bishopÖgmundur Pálsson and his clergy denounced it, threatening excommunication for anyone subscribing to the German "heresy".[21] In 1539, the King sent a new governor to Iceland,Klaus von Mervitz, with a mandate to introduce reform and take possession of church property.[21] Von Mervitz seized a monastery inViðey with the help of his sheriff,Dietrich of Minden, and his soldiers. They drove the monks out and seized all their possessions, for which they were promptly excommunicated by Ögmundur.
England andScotland endured the longest of the European transformations in response to theReformation.Henry VIII declared himselfHead of theChurch of England (1534) in response to Rome's refusal to sanction theannulment of his marriage toQueen Catherine. He still, however, died a Catholic. Officially, theEnglish Reformation began underEdward VI (1547–1553) led by ArchbishopThomas Cranmer of Canterbury.Queen Mary (1553–1558) persecuted Protestants in an attempt to restore Catholicism to England. Ironically, this only served to enhance Protestant determination. Following this trend,Elizabeth solidified Protestantism as thestate religion of England permanently.[22] Overall, the Reformation led to the seizing of all Catholic Church assets in Britain, persecution of clergy, and the virtual destruction of Catholicism as a significant socio-political force in the region.[4]
In 1618 theDutch War of Independence ended and CatholicSpain ceased torule over the region. Much of this war is considered to be on religious grounds.[16]
The 17th century saw Protestant-Catholic tensions rise particularly inGermany leading to theThirty Years War from 1618 to 1648. This war saw the destruction of much ofCentral Europe and divided much of the continent along Catholic-Protestant lines. Swedes, Danes, and French were all involved. The war culminated in theTreaty of Westphalia (1648) which grantedCalvinists andLutherans equal rights to Catholics.[23]
New Englanders were deeply suspicious of Catholicism and in 1647 banished all Catholic clergymen by law. In 1689 theMaryland Assembly forbade Catholic baptism outside of already Catholic households, the practicing ofCatholic mass, and more.[10]
In 1685 kingLouis XIV revoked theEdict of Nantes leading to the prosecution of Protestants inFrance.[23]
TheBritish Empire andits colonies in North America remained apprehensive towards the Roman Catholic Church; Protestant settlers inBritish North America were particularly hostile. As of 1700,Roman Catholic clergymen immigrating to theThirteen Colonies were imprisoned upon arrival inNew England. In 1725 Spanish-born Londoner Antonio Gavin wroteA Master Key toPopery which was adopted in Protestant sects across the British Empire. Gavin described Roman Catholic clergymen as "wolves in sheep's clothing", purposefully teaching erroneous doctrine, power-hungry, and more. Similar sentiments were preached throughout the colonies of the British Empire in the legal, academic, and religious spheres. In 1731,Massachusetts Supreme Court JudgePaul Dudley wroteAn Essay on the Merchandize of Slaves and Souls of Men: With Application thereof to the Church of Rome describing thefinancial greed of the Roman Catholic Church. Among others, Dudley's will made provisions for a lecture on the "detection, conviction and exposition of Roman Churchidolatry". Jonathan Mayhew,pastor ofBoston's West Church, also preached on the idolatry oftransubstantiation and the equating of theoral tradition of the Roman Catholic Church with thescriptural authority of the Bible.
The late 18th century saw a series of new laws introduced toBritish North America to curtail the immigration of Roman Catholics and dispossess those already dwelling there.Opposition towards Roman Catholicism soon became intertwined withAmerican nationalism; in 1757, Roman Catholics were deprived of theirright to bear arms. Thus, when conspiracies of secret relations between the Roman Catholic Church and theBritish Monarchy spread,British-ruled colonists preferred to revolt againstthe Crown, thus starting theAmerican Revolution (1765–1783). However, the revolutionaries eventually diverged from this position, given their reliance on funding from theKingdom of France, and to avoid conflict with theFrench colonial settlements ofMaryland,Philadelphia, andQuebec.[24] In contrast, theQuebec Act of 1774 provided protections for both English Protestants and French Roman Catholics inCanada.[24]
The 1800s saw a period known as theSecond Great Awakening for Protestantism in theUnited States. Prominent figures such asCharles Grandison Finney (1792–1875) advocated against Roman Catholicism amongst other perceived evils. TheAmerican Bible Society – a Protestant organisation – advocated for the unification ofProtestant denominations in order to combat Catholicism. Deep distrust existed among Protestants towardsthe Papacy.[25]
In 1821 and again in 1825, theEnglish House of Commons oversaw proposed bills regarding the emancipation of Catholics. In both instances, they were overturned given the heavily Protestant nature of theEngland'sHouse of Lords.[4]
CatholicAustria recognisedProtestantism as a legal religion in the 1860s.[26]
In 1871 the Protestant rulers ofGermany undertook a program known as thekulturkampf (culture struggle) which saw the suppression ofGerman Catholicism. The German Ministry for Education's Catholic Bureau was abolished, and openly political priests were prosecuted. In 1872, theJesuits were expelled from Germany.[27]
In 1895Pope Leo XIII attempted to make amends with theChurch of England in hisapostolic letterAd Anglos. In 1896, however, Leo maintained Catholic superiority and declared Anglican orders invalid[28] in his bullApostolicae curae.
%2c_Petersdom_--_2013_--_4352.jpg)
The 20th century saw many developments in the relationship between Catholic-Protestant relations. In 1910, theInternational Missionary Conference was held inEdinburgh in an attempt to unify non-Roman churches. Protestant denominations responded to the possibility of unification with varying success. Catholic representatives were present at the council, but merely as observers.[29]
TheConversations at Malines (1923–27) were talks between some representatives of the Catholic Church and the Church of England whichPope Pius XI ceased. No real change eventuated from these talks.[30]
In 1950 the Roman Catholic Church widened the gap between itself and Protestantism by defining and enforcing thedoctrine of the Assumption of Mary underPius XII.[30]
TheSecond Vatican Council (1962–65) aimed to move towards Christian unity of all denominations. Doctrinal unity was reached to some degree with different denominations and a "sharedBible"[a] was introduced.[30]
religious_group_by_EU_member_state_-_Eurobarometer_2019.svg)
In the spirit ofVatican II, the Catholic Church has embraced a more open approach to Christian unity to both Protestants andEastern Orthodoxy.[30] Nevertheless, manyAmericanised remnants of Anglo-American-style denominations of Protestantism remain deeplydistrustful of the Catholic Church.[32][33] Ecumenism with these sects appears unlikely.[24]
In 2015,Pope Francis declared division among Christians as "the work of thefather of lies [the devil]." Francis added that the devil knows that "all Christians are disciples of Christ: that they are one, that they are brothers! He [the devil] doesn't care if they are Evangelicals or Orthodox, Lutherans, Catholics or Apostolic… He doesn't care! They are Christians!"[30][34][35]
In 2016, Pope Francis traveled toLund, Sweden, where he took part in the celebration given for the upcoming of the 500thanniversary of the Reformation.[36] The next year, the press of theVatican released a stamp to commemorate the 500th anniversary of the Reformation; the stamp depicts Luther andMelanchton kneeling before a crucified Jesus.[37][38]
Protestants: 625,606,000; Independents: 421,689,000; Unaffiliated Christians: 123,508,000
The United Methodists see Scripture as the primary source and criterion for Christian doctrine. They emphasize the importance of tradition, experience, and reason for Christian doctrine. Lutherans teach that the Bible is the sole source for Christian doctrine. The truths of Scripture do not need to be authenticated by tradition, human experience, or reason. Scripture is self authenticating and is true in and of itself.
In the Free Methodist church, we believe all truth is God's truth. If something is true, we embrace it as from the Lord. First and foremost, we hold scripture up to be the primary source of God's inspired revealed truth to us. And, we also embrace truth that is found in three other places: reason, tradition, and experience. Along with scripture, this has come to be called the Wesleyan Quadrilateral and we believe it informs our theology.
Traditional Methodists believe in prima Scriptura, seeing the Holy Bible as the primary authority in the Church and using sacred tradition, reason, and experience to interpret it, with the aid of the Holy Spirit (see Wesleyan Quadrilateral).
historically Anglicans have adopted what could be called a prima Scriptura position.
