In the 2010s until the 2020s, there was growing support forCatalan independence. On 27 October 2017, the Catalan Parliament unilaterally declared independence following areferendum that was deemed unconstitutional. The Spanish State enforced direct rule by removing the Catalan government and callinga snap regional election. TheSpanish Supreme Court imprisoned seven former Catalan ministers on charges of rebellion and misuse of public funds, while several others—including then-PresidentCarles Puigdemont—fled to other European countries. Those in prison[f] were pardoned in 2021.
The name "Catalonia" (Medieval Latin:Cathalaunia), spelledCathalonia, began to be used for the homeland of theCatalans (Cathalanenses) in the late 11th century and was probably used before as a territorial reference to the group of counties that comprised part of the March of Gothia and theMarch of Hispania under the control of theCount of Barcelona and his relatives.[17] The origin of the nameCatalunya is subject to diverse interpretations because of a lack of evidence.
One theory suggests thatCatalunya derives from the nameGothia (orGauthia)Launia ("Land of theGoths"), since the origins of the Catalan counts, lords and people were found in the March of Gothia, known asGothia, whenceGothland >Gothlandia >Gothalania >Cathalaunia >Catalonia theoretically derived.[18][19] During theMiddle Ages,Byzantine chroniclers claimed thatCatalania derives from the local medley ofGoths withAlans, initially constituting aGoth-Alania.[20]
Other theories suggest:
Catalunya derives from the term "land of castles", having evolved from the termcastlà orcastlan, the medieval term for acastellan (a ruler of acastle).[18][21] This theory therefore suggests that the namesCatalunya andCastile have a common root.
The source is the Celticcatalauni, meaning "chiefs of battle", similar to the Celtic given name*Katuwalos;[22] although the area is not known to have been occupied by theCeltiberians, a Celtic culture was present within the interior of theIberian Peninsula in pre-Roman times.[23]
Miguel Vidal, finding serious shortcomings with earlier proposals (such as that an original -t- would have, by normal sound laws in the local Romance languages, developed into -d-), suggested an Arabic etymology:qattāl (قتال,pl.qattālūnقتالون) – meaning "killer" – could have been applied by Muslims to groups of raiders and bandits on the southern border of theMarca Hispanica.[25] The name, originally derogatory, could have been reappropriated by Christians as an autonym. This is comparable to attested development of the termAlmogavar in nearby areas. In this model, the nameCatalunya derives from the pluralqattālūn while the adjective and language namecatalà derives from the singularqattāl, both with the addition of common Romance suffixes.[26]
The first known human settlements in what is now Catalonia were at the beginning of theMiddle Paleolithic. The oldest known trace of human occupation is amandible found inBanyoles, described as pre-Neanderthal, that is, some 200,000 years old; other sources suggest it to be only about one third that old.[27] There are important remains from theEpipalaeolithic orMesolithic, dated between 8000 and 5000BC. The most important sites from these eras, all excavated in the region ofMoianès, are the Balma del Gai (Epipaleolithic) and the Balma de l'Espluga.[28] TheNeolithic era began in Catalonia around 5000BC, although the population was slower to develop fixed settlements thanks to the abundance of woods, which allowed the continuation of a fundamentallyhunter-gatherer culture, for example, La Draga at Banyoles, an "early Neolithic village which dates from the end of the 6th millenniumBC".[29]
TheBronze Age occurred between 1800 and 700BC. There were some known settlements in thelow Segre zone. The Bronze Age coincided with the arrival of theIndo-Europeans through theUrnfield Culture, whose successive waves of migration began around 1200BC, and they were responsible for the creation of the first proto-urban settlements.[30] Around the middle of the 7th centuryBC, theIron Age arrived in Catalonia.
In pre-Roman times, the area that is now Catalonia was populated by theIberians. The Iberians tribes – theIlergetes,Indigetes andLacetani (Cerretains) – also maintained relations with the peoples of the Mediterranean. Some urban agglomerations became relevant, including Ilerda (Lleida) inland, Hibera (perhapsAmposta orTortosa) or Indika (Ullastret). Coastal trading colonies were established by theancient Greeks, who settled around theGulf of Roses, in Emporion (Empúries) andRoses in the8th century BC.
After the Carthaginian defeat by theRoman Republic, the north-east of Iberia became the first to come under Roman rule and became part ofHispania, the westernmost part of theRoman Empire.Tarraco (modernTarragona) was one of the most important Roman cities in Hispania and the capital of theprovince ofTarraconensis. Other important cities of the Roman period are Ilerda (Lleida), Dertosa (Tortosa), Gerunda (Girona) as well as the ports of Empuriæ (former Emporion) and Barcino (Barcelona). As for the rest of Hispania,Latin law was granted to all cities under the reign ofVespasian (69–79AD), whileRoman citizenship was granted to all free men of the empire by theEdict of Caracalla in 212AD (Tarraco, the capital, was already a colony ofRoman law since 45BC). It was a rich agricultural province (olive oil, wine,wheat), and the first centuries of the Empire saw the construction of roads (the most important being theVia Augusta, parallel to Mediterranean coastline) and infrastructure likeaqueducts.
Conversion toChristianity, attested in the 3rdcentury, was completed in urban areas in the 4thcentury. Although Hispania remained under Roman rule and did not fall under the rule ofVandals,Suebi andAlans in the 5thcentury, the main cities suffered frequent sacking and somedeurbanization.
After the fall of theWestern Roman Empire, the area was conquered by theVisigoths and was ruled as part of theVisigothic Kingdom for almost two and a half centuries. In 718, it came underMuslim control and became part ofAl-Andalus, a province of theUmayyad Caliphate. From the conquest of Roussillon in 760, to theconquest of Barcelona in 801, theFrankish empire took control of the area between Septimania and theLlobregat river from the Muslims and created heavily militarised, self-governingcounties. These counties formed part of the historiographically known as theGothic andHispanic Marches, abuffer zone in the south of the Frankish Empire in the northeast of the Iberian Peninsula, to act as a defensive barrier against further invasions from Al-Andalus.[31]
These counties came under the rule of thecounts of Barcelona, who were Frankishvassals nominated by the emperor of the Franks, to whom they werefeudatories (801–988). At the end of the 9thcentury, the Count of BarcelonaWilfred the Hairy (878–897) made his titles hereditaries and thus founded the dynasty of theHouse of Barcelona, which reigned in Catalonia until 1410.
Hug IV, count of Empúries, and Pero Maça during the conquest of Mallorca (1229)A 15th-century miniature of the Catalan Courts
In 988Borrell II, Count of Barcelona, did not recognise the new French kingHugh Capet as his king, evidencing the loss of dependency from Frankish rule and confirming his successors (fromRamon Borrell I onwards) as independent of the Capetian crown.[32] At the beginning of eleventh century the Catalan counties experienced an important process of feudalisation, however, the efforts of church's sponsoredPeace and Truce Assemblies and the intervention ofRamon Berenguer I, count of Barcelona (1035–1076) in the negotiations with the rebel nobility resulted in the partial restoration of the comital authority under the new feudal order. To fulfill that purpose, Ramon Berenguer began the modification of the legislation in the writtenUsages of Barcelona, being one of the first European compilations of feudal law. The earliest known use of the name "Catalonia" for these counties dates to 1117.
In 1137,Ramon Berenguer IV, Count of Barcelona decided to acceptKing Ramiro II of Aragon's proposal to receive theKingdom of Aragon and to marry his daughterPetronila, establishing the dynastic union of the County of Barcelona with Aragon, creating a composite monarchy later known as theCrown of Aragon and making the Catalan counties that were vassalized or merged with the County of Barcelona into aprincipality of the Aragonese Crown. During the reign of his sonAlphons, in 1173, Catalonia was regarded as a legal entity for the first time, while the Usages of Barcelona were compiled in the process to turn them into the law and custom of Catalonia (Consuetudinem Cathalonie), being considered one of the "milestones ofCatalan political identity".[33] In 1258, by means of theTreaty of CorbeilJames I of Aragon renounced his family rights and dominions inOccitania, while the king of France,Louis IX, formally relinquished to any historical claim of feudal lordship he might have over the Catalan counties.[34] This treaty confirmed, from French point of view, the independence of the Catalan counties already established the previous three centuries.
As a coastal land, Catalonia became the base of the Aragonese Crown's maritime forces, which spread the power of the Crown in the Mediterranean, turning Barcelona into a powerful and wealthy city. In the period of 1164–1410, new territories, theKingdom of Valencia, theKingdom of Majorca, theKingdom of Sardinia, theKingdom of Sicily, and, briefly, theDuchies ofAthens andNeopatras, were incorporated into the dynastic domains of theHouse of Aragon. The expansion was accompanied by a great development of the Catalan trade, creating an extensive trade network across the Mediterranean which competed with those of the maritime republics ofGenoa andVenice.
At the same time, thePrincipality of Catalonia developed a complex institutional and political system based in the concept of a pact between theestates of the realm and the king. The legislation had to be passed by theCatalan Courts (Corts Catalanes), one of the first parliamentary bodies of Europe that, after 1283, officially obtained the power to pass legislation with the monarch.[35] The Courts were composed of the three estates organized into "arms" (braços), were presided over by the monarch, and approved theCatalan constitutions, which established a compilation of rights for the inhabitants of the Principality. In order to collect general taxes, the Catalan Courts of 1359 established a permanent representative body, known as theGeneralitat, which gained considerable political power over the next centuries.[36]
Diachronic map of theCrown of Aragon. The Principality of Catalonia appears in light green
The domains of the Aragonese Crown were severely affected by theBlack Death pandemic and by later outbreaks of theplague. Between 1347 and 1497 Catalonia lost 37percent of its population.[37] In 1410, the last reigning monarch of the House of Barcelona, KingMartin I died without surviving descendants. Under theCompromise of Caspe (1412), the representatives of the kingdoms of Aragon, Valencia and the Principality of Catalonia appointedFerdinand from the CastilianHouse of Trastámara as King of the Crown of Aragon.[38] During the reign of his son,John II, the persistent economic crisis and social and political tensions in the Principality led to theCatalan Civil War (1462–1472) and theWar of the Remences (1462–1486) that left Catalonia exhausted. TheSentencia Arbitral de Guadalupe (1486) liberated theremença peasants from the feudal "evil customs".
Ferdinand II of Aragon, the son of John II, and queenIsabella I of Castile were married in 1469, later taking the title theCatholic Monarchs; subsequently, this event was traditionally seen as the first step towards a unified Spain. At this time, though united by marriage, the Crown ofCastile and the states of the Crown of Aragon remained distinct polities, each keeping its own institutions, parliaments, laws, jurisdictions, and currency.[39] Castile commissioned expeditions to theAmericas and benefited from the riches acquired in theSpanish colonization of the Americas, but, in time, also carried the main burden of military expenses of the united Spanish kingdoms. After Isabella's death, Ferdinand II personally ruled both crowns. By virtue of descent from his maternal grandparents, Ferdinand and Isabella, in 1516Charles I of Spain became the first king to rule the Crowns of Castile and Aragon simultaneously by his own right. Following the death of his paternal (House of Habsburg) grandfather,Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor, he was also electedCharles V, Holy Roman Emperor, in 1519.[40]
Corpus de Sang (7 June 1640), one of the main events of the Reaper's War. Painted in 1910
Over the next few centuries, the Principality of Catalonia was generally on the losing side of a series of wars that led steadily to an increased centralization of power in Spain. However, between the 16th and 18th centuries, the participation of the political community in the local and the general Catalan government grew (thus consolidating its constitutional system), while the kings remained absent, represented by aviceroy. Tensions between Catalan institutions and the monarchy began to arise. The large and burdensome presence of the Spanish royal army in the Principality due to theFranco-Spanish War led to an uprising of peasants, provoking theReapers' War (1640–1652), which saw Catalonia rebel, briefly as arepublic led by the president of the Generalitat,Pau Claris with French help against the Spanish Crown for overstepping Catalonia's rights during theThirty Years' War.[41] Within a brief period France took full control of Catalonia. Most of Catalonia was reconquered by the Spanish monarchy but Catalan rights were mostly recognized.Roussillon and half of Cerdanya was lost to France by theTreaty of the Pyrenees (1659).[42]
The most significant conflict concerning the governing monarchy was theWar of the Spanish Succession (1701–1715), which began when the childlessCharles II of Spain, the last Spanish Habsburg, died without an heir in 1700. Charles II had chosenPhilip V of Spain from the FrenchHouse of Bourbon. The Principality of Catalonia, like the other states of the Crown of Aragon, rose up in support of the Austrian Habsburg pretenderCharles VI, Holy Roman Emperor, in his claim for the Spanish throne as Charles III of Spain. The fight between the houses of Bourbon and Habsburg for the Spanish Crown split Spain and Europe. After a series of advances and stalemates between the two sides, geopolitical changes in Europe led to peace. Philip V was internationally recognized as king of Spain by theTreaty of Utrecht (1713).
In July 1713 the Junta de Braços (parliamentary assembly) of Catalonia opted to unilaterally remain in the war to protect Catalan constitutions and lives from Bourbon punishment, beginning a separate conflict known as theWar of the Catalans (1713–1714). Thesiege and capitulation of Barcelona (11 September 1714) ended Catalan resistance. In retaliation for the betrayal, and inspired by the French model, Philip enacted theNueva Planta decrees (1707, 1715 and 1716), forcibly incorporating the realms of the Crown of Aragon, including the Principality of Catalonia in 1716, as provinces of Castile, terminating their status as separate states along with their parliaments, institutions andpublic laws, within a French-style centralized andabsolutist kingdom of Spain.[43] After the War of the Spanish Succession, the assimilation of the Crown of Aragon in the Castilian Crown through the Nueva Planta Decrees was the first step in the creation of the Spanishnation state.[44] These nationalist policies, sometimes aggressive,[45][46][47][48] and still in force,[49][50][51] have been and are the seed of repeated territorial conflicts within the state. In the second half of the 17th century and the 18th century (excluding the parentheses of the Succession War and the post-war instability) Catalonia carried out a successful process of economic growth andproto-industrialization, reinforced in the late quarter of the century when Castile's trade monopoly with American colonies ended.
At the beginning of the nineteenth century, Catalonia was severely affected by theNapoleonic Wars. In 1808, it was occupied by French troops; the resistance against the occupation eventually developed into thePeninsular War. The rejection of French dominion was institutionalized with the creation of "juntas" (councils) who, remaining loyal to the Bourbons, exercised the sovereignty and representation of the territory due to the disappearance of the old institutions. In 1810, Napoleon took direct control of Catalonia, creating the Government of Catalonia under the rule ofMarshall Augereau, and making Catalan briefly an official language again. Between 1812 and 1814, Catalonia was annexed to France.[52] The French troops evacuated Catalan territory at the end of 1814. After the Bourbon restoration in Spain and the death of the absolutist kingFerdinand VII (1833),Carlist Wars erupted against the newly establishedliberal state ofIsabella II. Catalonia was divided, with the coastal and most industrialized areas supporting liberalism, while most of the countryside were in the hands of theCarlist faction; the latter proposed to reestablish the institutional systems suppressed by the Nueva Planta decrees in the ancient realms of the Crown of Aragon. The consolidation of the liberal state saw a new provincial division of Spain, including Catalonia, which was divided into four provinces (Barcelona, Girona, Lleida and Tarragona).
In the second third of the 19thcentury, Catalonia became an important industrial center, particularly focused ontextiles. This process was a consequence of the conditions of proto-industrialisation of textile production in the prior two centuries, growing capital from wine and brandy export,[53]: 27 and was later boosted by the government support for domestic manufacturing. In 1832, theBonaplata Factory in Barcelona became the first factory in the country to make use of thesteam engine.[54]: 308 The first railway on the Iberian Peninsula was built between Barcelona andMataró in 1848.[citation needed] A policy to encouragecompany towns also saw the textile industry flourish in the countryside in the 1860s and 1870s. Although the policy of Spanish governments oscillated between free trade and protectionism,protectionist laws [es] become more common. To this day Catalonia remains one of the most industrialised areas of Spain.
During the 19th century, as well as other Spaniards, there were Catalan business involved in theAtlantic slave trade and in the owning and management ofslave plantations in Cuba and Puerto Rico.[55] Between 1817 and 1867, they were involved in the transportation of 550,000 to 700,000 slaves from West Africa to the Caribbean. The Spanish government turned a blind eye to illicit slave trading. When slavery was abolished in 1886, as well as other Spaniards, the "indianos", various Catalan returned and invested their fortunes in constructing mansions in areas such asLa Rambla.[56]
At the same time, Barcelona was the focus of industrial conflict and revolutionary uprisings known as "bullangues". In Catalonia, arepublican current began to develop among the progressives, attrackting many Catalans who favored the federalisation of Spain. Meanwhile, the Catalan language saw aRomantic cultural renaissance from the second third of the century onwards, theRenaixença, among both the working class and the bourgeoisie. Right after the fall of theFirst Spanish Republic (1873–1874) and the subsequent restoration of the Bourbon dynasty (1874), Catalan nationalism began to be organized politically under the leadership of the republican federalistValentí Almirall.
Theanarchist movement had been active throughout the last quarter of the 19th century and the early 20th century, founding theCNT trade union in 1910 and achieving one of the firsteight-hour workdays in Europe in 1919.[57] Growing resentment of conscription and of the military culminated in theTragic Week (Catalan:Setmana Tràgica) in Barcelona in 1909. Under the hegemony of theRegionalist League, Catalonia gained a degree of administrative unity for the first time in the Modern era. In 1914, the four Catalan provinces were authorized to create acommonwealth (Catalan:Mancomunitat), lacking legislative power or political autonomy, which carried out an ambitious program of modernization, but it was disbanded in 1925 by the dictatorship ofPrimo de Rivera (1923–1930). During the final stage of the Dictatorship, with Spain beginning to suffer an economic crisis, Barcelona hosted the1929 International Exposition.[58]
After the end of the dictatorship and a brief proclamation of theCatalan Republic, during the events of the proclamation of theSecond Spanish Republic (14–17April1931),[59] Catalonia received, in 1932, itsfirst Statute of Autonomy from the Spanish Republic's Parliament, granting it a considerable degree of self-governance, establishing an autonomous body, the Generalitat of Catalonia, which included aparliament. The left-wing pro-independence leaderFrancesc Macià was appointed its first president. Under the Statute, Catalan became an official language. The governments of theRepublican Generalitat, led by theRepublican Left of Catalonia (ERC) leaders Francesc Macià (1931–1933) andLluís Companys (1933–1940), sought to implement a modernizing and progressive social agenda, despite the internal difficulties. This period was marked by political unrest, the effects of the economic crisis and their social repercussions. The Statute of Autonomy was suspended in 1934, due to theEvents of 6 October in Barcelona, after the accession of right-wing Spanish nationalist partyCEDA to the government of the Republic, considered close tofascism.[60] After the electoral victory of the left wingPopular Front in February 1936, the Government of Catalonia was pardoned and the self-government was restored.
Spanish Civil War (1936–1939) and Franco's rule (1939–1975)
The defeat of themilitary rebellion against the Republican government in Barcelona placed Catalonia firmly in theRepublican side of theSpanish Civil War. During the war, there were two rival powers in Catalonia: the de jure power of the Generalitat and the de facto power of the armed popular militias.[61] Violent confrontations between the workers' parties (CNT-FAI andPOUM against thePSUC) culminated in the defeat of the former in 1937. The situation resolved itself progressively in favor of the Generalitat, but at the same time the Generalitat lost most of its autonomous powers within Republican Spain. In 1938 Franco's troops broke the Republican territory in two, isolating Catalonia from the rest of the Republican territory. The defeat of the Republican army in theBattle of the Ebro led in 1938 and 1939 to theoccupation of Catalonia by Franco's forces.
CNT-FAI workercooperative in Barcelona producing wood and steel products
The defeat of the Spanish Republic in theSpanish Civil War brought to power the dictatorship ofFrancisco Franco, whose first ten-year rule was particularly violent, autocratic, and repressive both in a political, cultural, social, and economical sense.[62] In Catalonia, any kind of public activities associated withCatalan nationalism,republicanism,anarchism,socialism,liberalism,democracy orcommunism, including the publication of books on those subjects or simply discussion of them in open meetings, was banned. Franco's regime banned the use of Catalan in government-run institutions and during public events, and the Catalan institutions of self-government were abolished. The president of Catalonia,Lluís Companys, was taken to Spain from his exile in the German-occupied France and was tortured and executed in theMontjuïc Castle of Barcelona for the crime of 'military rebellion'.[63]
During later stages ofFrancoist Spain, certain folkloric and religious celebrations in Catalan resumed and were tolerated. Use of Catalan in themass media had been forbidden but was permitted from the early 1950s[64] in the theatre. Despite the ban during the first years and the difficulties of the next period, publishing in Catalan continued throughout his rule.[65]
The years after the war were extremely hard. Catalonia, like many other parts of Spain, had been devastated by the war. Recovery from the war damage was slow and made more difficult by the international trade embargo and theautarkic politics of Franco's regime. By the late 1950s, the region had recovered its pre-war economic levels and in the 1960s was the second-fastest growing economy in the world in what became known as theSpanish miracle. During this period there was a spectacular[66] growth of industry and tourism in Catalonia that drew large numbers of workers to the region from across Spain and made the area around Barcelona one of Europe's largest industrial metropolitan areas.[citation needed]
After Franco's death in 1975, Catalonia voted for the adoption of a democratic Spanish Constitution in 1978, in which Catalonia recovered political and cultural autonomy, restoring the Generalitat (exiled since the end of the Civil War in 1939) in 1977 and adopting anew Statute of Autonomy in 1979, which defined Catalonia as a "nationality". Thefirst elections to the Parliament of Catalonia under this Statute gave the Catalan presidency toJordi Pujol, leader ofConvergència i Unió (CiU), a center-right Catalan nationalist electoral coalition, with Pujol re-elected until 2003. Throughout the 1980s and 1990s, the institutions of Catalan autonomy were deployed, among them an autonomous police force, theMossos d'Esquadra, in 1983,[67] and the broadcasting networkTelevisió de Catalunya and its first channelTV3, created in 1983.[68] An extensive program of normalization of Catalan language was carried out. Today, Catalonia remains one of the most economically dynamic communities of Spain. The Catalan capital and largest city, Barcelona, is a major international cultural centre and a major tourist destination. In 1992,Barcelona hosted theSummer Olympic Games.[69]
The new Statute of Autonomy of Catalonia, approved after a referendum in 2006, was contested by important sectors of the Spanish society, especially by the conservativePeople's Party, which sent the law to theConstitutional Court of Spain. In 2010, the Court declared non-valid some of the articles that established an autonomous Catalan system of Justice, improved financing, a new territorial division, the status of Catalan language or the symbolical declaration of Catalonia as a nation.[70] This decision was severely contested by large sectors of Catalan society, which increased the demands of independence.[71]
On 14 October 2019, the Spanish Supreme courtsentenced several Catalan political leaders, involved in organizing a referendum on Catalonia's independence from Spain, and convicted them on charges ranging fromsedition tomisuse of public funds, with sentences ranging from 9 to 13 years in prison. This decision sparked demonstrations around Catalonia.[87] They were later pardoned by the Spanish government and left prison in June 2021.[88][89] In the early-to-mid 2020s support for independence declined to 40% in favour, with support for dropping significantly,[90][91][92][93][94] with the left-wingunionistSocialists' Party of Catalonia (PSC-PSOE) returning to office in theMay 2024 elections.[95][96]
The climate of Catalonia is diverse. The populated areas lying by the coast in Tarragona, Barcelona and Girona provinces feature aHot-summer Mediterranean climate (KöppenCsa). The inland part (including the Lleida province and the inner part of Barcelona province) show a mostlyMediterranean climate (KöppenCsa). The Pyrenean peaks have acontinental (KöppenD) or evenAlpine climate (KöppenET) at the highest summits, while the valleys have a maritime oroceanic climate sub-type (KöppenCfb). Acold semi-arid climate (KöppenBSk) is also present in parts of the provinces of Tarragona and Lleida.[97]
In the Mediterranean area, summers are dry and hot with sea breezes, and the maximum temperature is around 26–31 °C (79–88 °F). Winter is cool or slightly cold depending on the location. It snows frequently in the Pyrenees, and it occasionally snows at lower altitudes, even by the coastline. Spring and autumn are typically the rainiest seasons, except for the Pyrenean valleys, where summer is typically stormy.
The inland part of Catalonia is hotter and drier in summer. Temperature may reach 35 °C (95 °F), some days even 40 °C (104 °F). Nights are cooler there than at the coast, with the temperature of around 14–17 °C (57–63 °F). Fog is not uncommon in valleys and plains; it can be especially persistent, withfreezing drizzle episodes and subzero temperatures during winter, mainly along theEbro andSegre valleys and inPlain of Vic.On February 2, 1956, −32 °C (−26 °F) was recorded at Lake Gento in the province of Lleida, which is the lowest temperature ever recorded in Spain.[98]
Climate data for Catalonia (1991-2020), extremes (1924-present)
Catalonia has a marked geographical diversity, considering the relatively small size of its territory. Thegeography is conditioned by the Mediterranean coast, with 580 kilometres (360 miles) of coastline, and the towering Pyrenees along the long northern border. Catalonia is divided into three main geomorphological units:[100]
The Pyrenees: mountainous formation that connects the Iberian Peninsula with theEuropean continental territory (see passage above);
The Catalan Coastal mountain ranges or the Catalan Mediterranean System: an alternating delevacions and planes parallel to the Mediterranean coast;
TheCatalan Central Depression: structural unit which forms the eastern sector of the Valley of the Ebro.
The Catalan Pyrenees represent almost half in length of the Pyrenees, as it extends more than 200 kilometres (120 miles). Traditionally differentiated the Axial Pyrenees (the main part) and thePre-Pyrenees (southern from the Axial) which are mountainous formations parallel to the main mountain ranges but with lower altitudes, less steep and a different geological formation. The highest mountain of Catalonia, located north of the comarca of Pallars Sobirà is the Pica d'Estats (3,143m), followed by the Puigpedrós (2,914m). TheSerra del Cadí comprises the highest peaks in the Pre-Pyrenees and forms the southern boundary of theCerdanya valley.
The Central Catalan Depression is a plain located between the Pyrenees and Pre-Coastal Mountains. Elevation ranges from 200 to 600 metres (660 to 1,970 feet). The plains and the water that descend from the Pyrenees have made it fertile territory foragriculture and numerous irrigation canals have been built. Another major plain is theEmpordà, located in the northeast.
The Catalan Mediterranean system is based on two ranges running roughly parallel to the coast (southwest–northeast), called the Coastal and the Pre-Coastal Ranges. The Coastal Range is both the shorter and the lower of the two, while the Pre-Coastal is greater in both length and elevation. Areas within the Pre-Coastal Range includeMontserrat,Montseny and thePorts de Tortosa-Beseit. Lowlands alternate with the Coastal and Pre-Coastal Ranges. The Coastal Lowland is located to the East of the Coastal Range between it and the coast, while the Pre-Coastal Lowlands are located inland, between the Coastal and Pre-Coastal Ranges, and includes theVallès andPenedès plains.
Catalonia is a showcase of Europeanlandscapes on a small scale. Just over 30,000 square kilometres (12,000 square miles) hosting a variety of substrates, soils, climates, directions, altitudes and distances to the sea. The area is of great ecological diversity and a remarkable wealth of landscapes, habitats and species.
The fauna of Catalonia comprises a minority of animals endemic to the region and a majority of non-endemic animals. Much of Catalonia enjoys a Mediterranean climate (except mountain areas), which makes many of the animals that live there adapted to Mediterranean ecosystems. Of mammals, there are plentifulwild boar, red foxes, as well asroe deer and in the Pyrenees, thePyrenean chamois. Other large species such as thebear have been recently reintroduced.
Most of Catalonia belongs to theMediterranean Basin. The Catalan hydrographic network consists of two important basins, that of theEbro and the one that comprises the internal basins of Catalonia (respectively covering 46.84% and 51.43% of the territory), all of them flow to theMediterranean. Furthermore, there is theGarona river basin that flows to theAtlantic Ocean, but it only covers 1.73% of the Catalan territory.
The hydrographic network can be divided in two sectors, an occidental slope or Ebro river slope and one oriental slope constituted by minor rivers that flow to the Mediterranean along the Catalan coast. The first slope provides an average of 18,700cubic hectometres (4.5cubic miles) per year, while the second only provides an average of 2,020 hm3 (0.48 cu mi)/year. The difference is due to the big contribution of the Ebro river, from which theSegre is an important tributary. Moreover, in Catalonia there is a relative wealth of groundwaters, although there is inequality betweencomarques, given the complex geological structure of the territory.[103] In the Pyrenees there are many small lakes, remnants of theice age. The biggest are thelake of Banyoles and the recently recoveredlake of Ivars.
The Catalan coast is almost rectilinear, with a length of 580 kilometres (360 mi) and fewlandforms—the most relevant are theCap de Creus and theGulf of Roses to the north and theEbro Delta to the south. TheCatalan Coastal Range hugs the coastline, and it is split into two segments, one betweenL'Estartit and the town ofBlanes (theCosta Brava), and the other at the south, at the Costes delGarraf.
The majority of Catalan population is concentrated in 30% of the territory, mainly in the coastal plains. Intensive agriculture, livestock farming and industrial activities have been accompanied by a massivetourist influx (more than 20million annual visitors), a rate of urbanization and even of major metropolisation which has led to a strong urban sprawl: two thirds of Catalans live in the urban area of Barcelona, while the proportion of urban land increased from 4.2% in 1993 to 6.2% in 2009, a growth of 48.6% in sixteen years, complemented with a dense network of transport infrastructure. This is accompanied by a certain agricultural abandonment (decrease of 15% of all areas cultivated in Catalonia between 1993 and 2009) and a global threat tonatural environment. Human activities have also put some animal species at risk, or even led to their disappearance from the territory, like thegray wolf and probably thebrown bear of the Pyrenees. The pressure created by this model of life means that the country'secological footprint exceeds its administrative area.[104]
Faced with these problems, Catalan authorities initiated several measures whose purpose is to protect natural ecosystems. Thus, in 1990, the Catalan government created the Nature Conservation Council (Catalan:Consell de Protecció de la Natura), an advisory body with the aim to study, protect and manage the natural environments and landscapes of Catalonia. In addition, the Generalitat has carried out the Plan of Spaces of Natural Interest (Pla d'Espais d'Interès Natural or PEIN) in 1992 while eighteen Natural Spaces of Special Protection (Espais Naturals de Protecció Especial or ENPE) have been instituted.
Lluís Companys, second president of the Generalitat of Catalonia between 1933 and 1940, executed by Franco's regime
After Franco's death in 1975 and the adoption of a democratic constitution in Spain in 1978, Catalonia recovered and extended the powers that it had gained in theStatute of Autonomy of 1932[105] but lost with the fall of theSecond Spanish Republic[106] at the end of theSpanish Civil War in 1939.
This autonomous community has gradually achieved moreautonomy since the approval of theSpanish Constitution of 1978. The Generalitat holds exclusive jurisdiction in education, health, culture, environment, communications, transportation, commerce, public safety and local government, and only shares jurisdiction with the Spanish government in justice.[107] In all, some analysts argue that formally the current system grants Catalonia with "more self-government than almost any other corner in Europe".[108]
The support for Catalan nationalism ranges from a demand for further autonomy and thefederalisation of Spain to the desire for independence from the rest of Spain, expressed by Catalan independentists.[109] The first survey following the Constitutional Court ruling that cut back elements of the 2006 Statute of Autonomy, published byLa Vanguardia on 18July2010, found that 46% of the voters would support independence in a referendum.[110] In February of the same year, a poll by theOpen University of Catalonia gave more or less the same results.[111] Other polls have shown lower support for independence, ranging from 40 to 49%.[112][113][114] Although it is established in the whole of the territory, support for independence is significantly higher in the hinterland and the northeast, away from the more populous coastal areas such as Barcelona.[115]
Since 2011 when the question started to be regularly surveyed by the governmental Center for Public Opinion Studies (CEO), support for Catalan independence has been on the rise.[116] According to the CEO opinion poll from July2016, 47.7% of Catalans would vote for independence and 42.4% against it while, about the question of preferences, according to the CEO opinion poll from March 2016, a 57.2 claim to be "absolutely" or "fairly" in favour of independence.[117][118] Other polls have shown lower support for independence, ranging from 40 to 49%.[112][113][114] Other polls show more variable results, according with the Spanish CIS, as of December2016, 47% of Catalans rejected independence and 45% supported it.[119]
In hundreds of non-binding local referendums on independence, organised across Catalonia from 13September2009, a large majority voted for independence, although critics argued that the polls were mostly held in pro-independence areas. In December2009, 94% of those voting backed independence from Spain, on a turn-out of 25%.[120] The final local referendum was held in Barcelona, in April2011. On 11September2012, a pro-independence march pulled in a crowd of between 600,000 (according to theSpanish Government), 1.5million (according to theGuàrdia Urbana de Barcelona), and 2million (according to its promoters);[121][122] whereas poll results revealed that half the population of Catalonia supported secession from Spain.
Two major factors wereSpain's Constitutional Court's 2010 decision to declare part of the 2006 Statute of Autonomy of Catalonia unconstitutional, as well as the fact that Catalonia contributes 19.49% of the central government's tax revenue, but only receives 14.03% of central government's spending.[123]
In the25 November 2012 Catalan parliamentary election, sovereigntist parties supporting a secession referendum gathered 59.01% of the votes and held 87 of the 135seats in the Catalan Parliament. Parties supporting independence from the rest of Spain obtained 49.12% of the votes and a majority of 74seats.
Artur Mas, then the president of Catalonia, organised early elections that took place on 27September2015. In these elections, Convergència and Esquerra Republicana decided to join, and they presented themselves under the coalition namedJunts pel Sí (inCatalan, Together for Yes). Junts pel Sí won 62seats and was the most voted party, and CUP (Candidatura d'Unitat Popular, a far-left and independentist party) won another 10, so the sum of all the independentist forces/parties was 72seats, reaching an absolute majority, but not in number of individual votes, comprising 47,74% of the total.[124]
Both the 1979 Statute of Autonomy and the current one, approved in 2006, state that "Catalonia, as a nationality, exercises its self-government constituted as an Autonomous Community in accordance with the Constitution and with the Statute of Autonomy of Catalonia, which is its basic institutional law, always under the law in Spain".[125]
The Preamble of the 2006 Statute of Autonomy of Catalonia states that theParliament of Catalonia has defined Catalonia as anation, but that "the Spanish Constitution recognizes Catalonia's national reality as a nationality".[126] While the Statute was approved by and sanctioned by both the Catalan and Spanish parliaments, and later by referendum in Catalonia, it has been subject to a legal challenge by the surrounding autonomous communities ofAragon,Balearic Islands andValencia,[127] as well as by the conservativePeople's Party. The objections are based on various issues such as disputedcultural heritage but, especially, on the Statute's alleged breaches of the principle of "solidarity between regions" in fiscal and educational matters enshrined by theConstitution.[128]
Spain'sConstitutional Court assessed the disputed articles and on 28 June 2010, issued its judgment on the principal allegation of unconstitutionality presented by the People's Party in 2006. The judgment granted clear passage to 182 articles of the 223 that make up the fundamental text. The court approved 73 of the 114 articles that the People's Party had contested, while declaring 14 articles unconstitutional in whole or in part and imposing a restrictive interpretation on 27 others.[129] The court accepted the specific provision that described Catalonia as a "nation", however ruled that it was a historical and cultural term with no legal weight, and that Spain remained the only nation recognised by the constitution.[130][131][132][133]
The Catalan Statute of Autonomy establishes that Catalonia, as an autonomous community, is organised politically through theGeneralitat of Catalonia (Catalan:Generalitat de Catalunya), confirmed by theParliament, the Presidency of the Generalitat, theGovernment or Executive Council and the other institutions established by the Parliament, among them the Ombudsman (Síndic de Greuges), the Office of Auditors (Sindicatura de Comptes) the Council for Statutory Guarantees (Consell de Garanties Estatutàries) or the Audiovisual Council of Catalonia (Consell de l'Audiovisual de Catalunya).
TheParliament of Catalonia (Catalan:Parlament de Catalunya) is the unicameral legislative body of the Generalitat and represents the people of Catalonia. Its 135members (diputats) are elected byuniversal suffrage to serve for a four-year period. According to the Statute of Autonomy, it has powers to legislate over devolved matters such as education, health, culture, internal institutional and territorial organization, nomination of the President of the Generalitat and control the Government, budget and other affairs. The last Catalan electionwas held on 12 May 2024, and its current speaker (president) isJosep Rull, incumbent since 10June2024.
TheExecutive Council (Catalan:Consell Executiu) or Government (Govern), is the body responsible of the government of the Generalitat, it holds executive and regulatory power, being accountable to the Catalan Parliament. It comprises the President of the Generalitat, theFirst Minister (conseller primer) or theVice President, and the ministers (consellers) appointed by the president. Its seat is thePalau de la Generalitat, Barcelona. In 2025 the government is one party alone, theSocialists' Party of Catalonia (PSC-PSOE) and is made up of 16 ministers, including the vice President, alongside to the president and a secretary of government.
Catalonia has its own police force, theMossos d'Esquadra (officially calledMossos d'Esquadra-Policia de la Generalitat de Catalunya), whose origins date back to the 18thcentury. Since 1980 they have been under the command of the Generalitat, and since 1994 they have expanded in number in order to replace the nationalCivil Guard andNational Police Corps, which report directly to the Homeland Department of Spain. The national bodies retain personnel within Catalonia to exercise functions of national scope such as overseeing ports, airports, coasts, international borders, custom offices, the identification of documents and arms control, immigration control, terrorism prevention, arms trafficking prevention, amongst others.
Most of the justice system is administered by national judicial institutions, the highest body and last judicial instance in the Catalan jurisdiction, integrating the Spanish judiciary, is theHigh Court of Justice of Catalonia. Thecriminal justice system is uniform throughout Spain, whilecivil law is administered separately within Catalonia. The civil laws that are subject to autonomous legislation have been codified in theCivil Code of Catalonia (Codi civil de Catalunya) since 2002.[134]
Catalonia, together withNavarre and theBasque Country, are the Spanish communities with the highest degree of autonomy in terms oflaw enforcement.
Much like the rest of Spain, Catalonia is divided administratively into four provinces, the governing body of which is theProvincial Deputation (Catalan:Diputació Provincial, Occitan:Deputacion Provinciau, Spanish:Diputación Provincial). As of 2010, the four provinces and their populations were:[135]
Unlike vegueries, provinces do not follow the limitations of the subdivisional counties, notablyBaixa Cerdanya, which is split in half between the demarcations of Lleida and Girona. This situation has led some isolated municipalities to request province changes from the Spanish government.[136]
Besides provinces, Catalonia is internally divided into eight regions or vegueries, based on the feudal administrative territorial jurisdiction of thePrincipality of Catalonia.[137] Established in 2006, vegueries are used by theGeneralitat de Catalunya with the aim to more effectively divide Catalonia administratively. In addition, vegueries are intended to become Catalonia's first-level administrative division and a full replacement for the four deputations of the Catalan provinces, creating a council for each vegueria,[138][139][140] but this has not been realised as changes to the statewide provinces system are unconstitutional without a constitutional amendment.[141]
The territorial plan of Catalonia (Pla territorial general de Catalunya) provided six general functional areas,[142] but was amended by Law24/2001, of 31December, recognizingAlt Pirineu and Aran as a new functional area differentiated of Ponent.[143] After some opposition from some territories, it was made possible for the Aran Valley to retain its government (the vegueria is renamed toAlt Pirineu, although the nameAlt Pirineu and Aran is still used by the regional plan)[144] and in 2016, the Catalan Parliament approved the eighth vegueria, Penedès, split from the Barcelona region.[145][137]
As of 2022, the eight regions and their populations were:
Comarques (often known ascounties in English, but different from the historicalCatalan counties[146][147][148]) are entities composed of municipalities to internally manage their responsibilities and services. The current regional division has its roots in a decree of the Generalitat de Catalunya of 1936, in effect until 1939, when it was suppressed by Franco. In 1987 the Catalan Government reestablished the comarcal division and in 1988 three new comarques were added (Alta Ribagorça,Pla d'Urgell andPla de l'Estany). Some further revisions have been realised since then, such as the additions ofMoianès andLluçanès counties, in 2015 and 2023 respectively. Except forBarcelonès, every comarca is administered by acomarcal council (consell comarcal).
As of 2024, Catalonia is divided in 42 counties plus theAran Valley. The latter, although previously (and still informally) considered a comarca, obtained in 1990 a particular status within Catalonia due to its differences in culture and language, being administered by a body known as theConselh Generau d'Aran (General Council of Aran), and in 2015 it was defined as a "unique territorial entity" instead of a county.[149]
There are at present 947municipalities (municipis) in Catalonia. Each municipality is run by a council (ajuntament) elected every four years by the residents in local elections. The council consists of a number of members (regidors) depending on population, who elect themayor (alcalde orbatlle). Its seat is thetown hall (ajuntament,casa de la ciutat orcasa de la vila).
A highly industrialized region, the nominalGDP of Catalonia in 2018 was €228billion (second after thecommunity of Madrid, €230billion) and the per capitaGDP was €30,426 ($32,888), behindMadrid (€35,041), the Basque Country (€33,223), andNavarre (€31,389).[150] That year, the GDP growth was 2.3%.[151]
Catalonia's long-term credit rating is BB(Non-Investment Grade) according toStandard & Poor's, Ba2(Non-Investment Grade) according toMoody's, and BBB-(Low Investment Grade) according toFitch Ratings.[152][153][154] Catalonia's rating is tied for worst with between 1 and 5 other autonomous communities of Spain, depending on the rating agency.[154]
According to a 2020 study by Eu-Starts-Up, the Catalan capital is one of the European bases of "reference for start-ups" and the fifth city in the world to establish one of these companies, behind London, Berlin, Paris and Amsterdam. Barcelona is behind London, New York, Paris, Moscow, Tokyo, Dubai and Singapore and ahead of Los Angeles and Madrid.[155]
In the context of the2008 financial crisis, Catalonia was expected to suffer arecession amounting to almost a 2% contraction of its regional GDP in 2009.[156] Catalonia's debt in 2012 was the highest of all Spain's autonomous communities,[157] reaching €13,476million, i.e. 38% of the total debt of the 17autonomous communities,[158] but in recent years its economy recovered a positive evolution and the GDP grew a 3.3% in 2015.[159]
The main tourist destinations in Catalonia are the city of Barcelona, the beaches of the Costa Brava inGirona, the beaches of theCosta del Maresme andCosta del Garraf fromMalgrat de Mar toVilanova i la Geltrú and theCosta Daurada in Tarragona. In the High Pyrenees there are several ski resorts, nearLleida. On 1November2012, Catalonia started charging a tourist tax.[161] The revenue is used to promote tourism, and to maintain and upgrade tourism-related infrastructure.
Many of Spain's leadingsavings banks were based in Catalonia before theindependence referendum of 2017. However, in the aftermath of the referendum, many of them moved their registered office to other parts of Spain. That includes the two biggest Catalan banks at that moment,La Caixa, which moved its office toPalma de Mallorca, andBanc Sabadell, ranked fourth among all Spanish private banks and which moved its office toAlicante.[162][163] That happened after the Spanish government passed a law allowing companies to move their registered office without requiring the approval of the company's general meeting of shareholders.[164] Overall, there was a negative net relocation rate of companies based in Catalonia moving to other autonomous communities of Spain. From the 2017 independence referendum until the end of 2018, for example, Catalonia lost 5454companies to other parts of Spain (mainly Madrid), 2359 only in 2018, gaining 467 new ones from the rest of the country during 2018.[165][166] It has been reported that the Spanish government and the Spanish KingFelipe VI pressured some of the big Catalan companies to move their headquarters outside of the region.[167][168]
The stock market of Barcelona, which in 2016 had a volume of around €152billion, is the second largest of Spain after Madrid, andFira de Barcelona organizes international exhibitions and congresses to do with different sectors of the economy.[169]
The main economic cost for Catalan families is the purchase of a home. According to data from the Society of Appraisal on 31December2005 Catalonia is, after Madrid, the second most expensive region in Spain for housing: 3,397€/m2 on average[citation needed] (seeSpanish property bubble).
Aerial view of Zona Franca and the Port of Barcelona
Since the Middle Ages, Catalonia has been well integrated into international maritime networks. Theport of Barcelona (owned and operated byPuertos del Estado, a Spanish Government entity) is an industrial, commercial and tourist port of worldwide importance. With 1,950,000TEUs in 2015, it is the first container port in Catalonia, the third in Spain after Valencia andAlgeciras in Andalusia, the 9thin the Mediterranean Sea, the 14thin Europe and the 68thin the world. It is sixth largest cruise port in the world, the first in Europe and the Mediterranean with 2,364,292passengers in 2014. The ports ofTarragona (owned and operated by Puertos del Estado) in the southwest andPalamós near Girona at northeast are much more modest. The port of Palamós and the other ports in Catalonia(26) are operated and administered byPorts de la Generalitat [ca], a Catalan Government entity.
The development of these infrastructures, resulting from the topography and history of the Catalan territory, responds strongly to the administrative and political organization of this autonomous community.
There are 12,000 kilometres (7,500 mi) of roads throughout Catalonia.
The principal highways areAP-7 (Autopista de la Mediterrània) andA-7 (Autovia de la Mediterrània). They follow the coast from theFrench border toValencia,Murcia andAndalusia. The main roads generally radiate from Barcelona. TheAP-2 (Autopista del Nord-est) andA-2 (Autovia del Nord-est) connect inland and onward to Madrid.
Public-own roads in Catalonia are either managed by the autonomous government of Catalonia (e.g.,C- roads) or theSpanish government (e.g.,AP-,A-,N- roads).
Catalonia saw the first railway construction in theIberian Peninsula in 1848, linking Barcelona withMataró. Given the topography, most lines radiate from Barcelona. The city has both suburban and inter-city services. The main east coast line runs through the province connecting with theSNCF (French Railways) atPortbou on the coast.
There are two publicly owned railway companies operating in Catalonia: the CatalanFGC that operates commuter and regional services, and the Spanish nationalRenfe that operates long-distance and high-speed rail services (AVE and Avant) and the main commuter and regional serviceRodalies de Catalunya, administered by the Catalan government since 2010.
High-speed rail (AVE) services fromMadrid currently reach Barcelona, via Lleida and Tarragona. The official opening between Barcelona and Madrid took place 20February2008. The journey between Barcelona and Madrid now takes about two-and-a-half hours. A connection to theFrench high-speed TGV network has been completed (called thePerpignan–Barcelona high-speed rail line) and the Spanish AVE service began commercial services on the line 9January2013, later offering services toMarseille on their high speed network.[171][172] This was shortly followed by the commencement of commercial service by the French TGV on 17January2013, leading to an average travel time on theParis-Barcelona TGV route of 7h42m.[172][173] This new line passes throughGirona andFigueres with atunnel through the Pyrenees.
As of 2024, the official population of Catalonia was 8,067,454.[175] 1,194,947residents did not have Spanish citizenship, accounting for about 16% of the population.[176]
In 1900, the population of Catalonia was 1,966,382people and in 1970 it was 5,122,567.[175] The sizeable increase of the population was due to the demographic boom in Spain during the 1960s and early 1970s[177] as well as in consequence of large-scale internal migration from the rural economically weak regions to its more prospering industrial cities. In Catalonia, that wave of internal migration arrived from several regions of Spain, especially fromAndalusia,Murcia[178] andExtremadura.[179] As of 1999, it was estimated that over 60% of Catalans descended from 20thcentury migrations from other parts of Spain.[180]
Immigrants from other countries settled in Catalonia since the 1990s;[181] a large percentage comes fromAfrica,Latin America andEastern Europe, and smaller numbers fromAsia andSouthern Europe, often settling in urban centers such as Barcelona and industrial areas.[182] In 2017, Catalonia had 940,497foreign residents (11.9%of the total population) with non-Spanish ID cards, without including those who acquired Spanish citizenship.[183]
Historically, all the Catalan population wasChristian, specificallyCatholic, but since the 1980s there has been a trend of decline of Christianity. Nevertheless, according to the most recent study sponsored by theGovernment of Catalonia, as of 2020, 62.3% of the Catalans identify as Christians (up from 61.9% in 2016[187] and 56.5% in 2014[188]) of whom 53.0%Catholics, 7.0%Protestants andEvangelicals, 1.3%Orthodox Christians and 1.0%Jehovah's Witnesses. At the same time, 18.6% of the population identify asatheists, 8.8%asagnostics, 4.3%asMuslims, and a further 3.4% as being of other religions.[186]
Originating in the historic territory of Catalonia,Catalan is the official language of the Autonomous Community and has enjoyed special status since the approval of theStatute of Autonomy of 1979 which declares it to be "Catalonia's own language",[190] a term which signifies a language given special legal status within a Spanish territory, or which is historically spoken within a given region. The other languages considered official in Catalonia are Spanish, which has official status throughout Spain, and Aranese Occitan, considered the "own language" of theVal d'Aran territory. Given this, the sole official language fortoponymy throughout Catalonia is Catalan, except in the Val d'Aran where Occitan fulfils this role.[191]
According to the linguistic census held by the Government of Catalonia in 2013, Spanish is the most spoken language in Catalonia (46.53%claim Spanish as "their own language"), followed byCatalan (37.26%claim Catalan as "their own language"). In everyday use, 11.95%of the population claim to use both languages equally, whereas 45.92%mainly use Spanish and 35.54%mainly use Catalan. There is a significant difference between theBarcelona metropolitan area (and, to a lesser extent, theTarragona area), where Spanish is more spoken than Catalan, and the more rural and small town areas, where Catalan clearly prevails over Spanish.[192]
Since theStatute of Autonomy of 1979,Aranese (aGascon dialect ofOccitan) has also been official and subject to special protection inVal d'Aran. This small area of 7,000inhabitants was the only place where a dialect of Occitan had received full official status. Then, on 9August2006, when the new Statute came into force, Occitan became official throughout Catalonia. Occitan is the mother tongue of 22.4% of the population of Val d'Aran, which has attracted heavy immigration from other Spanish regions to work in the service industry.[193]Catalan Sign Language is also officially recognised.[7]
Although not considered an "official language" in the same way as Catalan, Spanish, and Occitan, theCatalan Sign Language, with about 18,000 users in Catalonia,[194] is granted official recognition and support: "The public authorities shall guarantee the use of Catalan sign language and conditions of equality for deaf people who choose to use this language, which shall be the subject of education, protection and respect."[7]
As was the case since the ascent of the Bourbon dynasty to the throne of Spain after theWar of the Spanish Succession, and with the exception of the short period of theSecond Spanish Republic, underFrancoist Spain Catalan was banned from schools and all other official use, so that for example families were not allowed to officially register children with Catalan names.[195] During the Francoist period especially, the Spanish Government actively suppressed the Catalan language, criminalizing its public usage,[196] promoting bothdiglossia andlinguistic substitution.[197] Although never completely banned, Catalan language publishing was severely restricted during the early 1940s, with only religious texts and small-run self-published texts being released. Some books were published clandestinely or circumvented the restrictions by showing publishing dates prior to 1936.[198] This policy was changed in 1946, when restricted publishing in Catalan resumed.[199]
Rural–urban migration originating in other parts of Spain also reduced the social use of Catalan in urban areas and increased the use of Spanish. Lately, a similarsociolinguistic phenomenon has occurred with foreign immigration. Catalan cultural activity increased in the 1960s and the teaching of Catalan began thanks to the initiative of associations such asÒmnium Cultural.
After the end of Francoist Spain, the newly established self-governing democratic institutions in Catalonia embarked on a long-termlanguage policy to recover the use of Catalan[200] and has, since 1983, enforced laws which attempt to protect and extend the use of Catalan. This policy, known as the "linguistic normalisation" (normalització lingüística in Catalan,normalización lingüística in Spanish) has been supported by the vast majority of Catalan political parties through the last thirty years. Some groups consider these efforts a way to discourage the use of Spanish,[201][202][203][204] whereas some others, including the Catalan government[205] and the European Union[206] consider the policies respectful,[207] or even as an example which "should be disseminated throughout the Union".[208]
Today, Catalan is the main language of the Catalan autonomous government and the other public institutions that fall under its jurisdiction. Basic public education is given mainly in Catalan, but also there are some hours per week of Spanish language instruction. Although the law requiring businesses to display all information (e.g. menus, posters) at least in Catalan not being systematically enforced, the majority of thelinguistic landscape in Catalonia is monolingually in Catalan. There is no obligation to display this information in either Occitan or Spanish, although there is no restriction on doing so in these or other languages and sometimes private businesses will display their information in Spanish or English as well. The use of fines was introduced in a 1997 linguistic law[211] that aims to increase the public use of Catalan and defend the rights of Catalan speakers. On the other hand, the Spanish Constitution does not recognize equal language rights for linguistic minorities since it enshrined Spanish as the only official language of the state, the knowledge of which being compulsory. Numerous laws regarding for instance the labelling of pharmaceutical products, make in effect Spanish the only language of compulsory use.
The law ensures that both Catalan and Spanish – being official languages – can be used by the citizens without prejudice in all public and private activities.[212] The Generalitat uses Catalan in its communications and notifications addressed to the general population, but citizens can also receive information from the Generalitat in Spanish if they so wish.[213] Debates in the Catalan Parliament take place almost exclusively in Catalan and theCatalan public television broadcasts programs in Catalan.
Due to theintense immigration[214] which Spain in general and Catalonia in particular experienced in the first decade of the 21st century, many foreign languages are spoken in various cultural communities in Catalonia, of whichRif-Berber,[215]Moroccan Arabic,Romanian[216] andUrdu are the most common ones.[217]
In Catalonia, there is a high social and political consensus on the language policies favoring Catalan, also among Spanish speakers and speakers of other languages.[218][219][220][221][needs update] However, some of these policies have been criticised for trying to promote Catalan by imposing fines on businesses. For example, following the passage of the law on Catalan cinema in March 2010, which established that half of the movies shown in Catalan cinemas had to be in Catalan, a general strike of 75% of the cinemas took place.[222] The Catalan government gave in and dropped the clause that forced 50% of the movies to be dubbed or subtitled in Catalan before the law came to effect.[223] On the other hand, organisations such asPlataforma per la Llengua reported different violations of the linguistic rights of the Catalan speakers in Catalonia and the other Catalan-speaking territories in Spain, most of them caused by the institutions of the Spanish government in these territories.[224]
The Catalan language policy has been challenged by some political parties in the Catalan Parliament.Citizens, a now extra-parliamentary party, is credited with breaking the consensus around language policy in the late 2000 through the 2010s. Nowadays, thefar-rightultra Spanish nationalist partyVox is the main supporter of a linguistic policy that favours Spanish in Catalonia.[225] The Catalan branch of thePeople's Party has a more ambiguous position on the issue: on one hand, it demands a bilingual Catalan–Spanish education and a more balanced language policy that would defend Catalan without favoring it over Spanish,[226] whereas on the other hand, a few local PP politicians have supported in their municipalities measures privileging Catalan over Spanish[227] and it has defended some aspects of the official language policies, sometimes against the positions of its colleagues from other parts of Spain.[228] It must be stated, however, that historically none of these three parties have held significant offices in either regional or local government, never having governed the Generalitat, presided anyDiputació orConsell Comarcal and as of 2025 having 4 mayors out of 947.[229]
Catalonia has given to the world many important figures in the area of the art. Catalan painters internationally known are, among others,Salvador Dalí,Joan Miró andAntoni Tàpies. Closely linked with the Catalan pictorial atmosphere,Pablo Picasso lived in Barcelona during his youth, training them as an artist and creating the movement ofcubism. Other important artists areClaudi Lorenzale for the medievalRomanticism that marked the artistic Renaixença,Marià Fortuny for the Romanticism and Catalan Orientalism of the nineteenth century,Ramon Casas orSantiago Rusiñol, main representatives of the pictorial current of Catalan modernism from the end of the nineteenth century to the beginning of the twentieth century,Josep Maria Sert for early 20th-centuryNoucentisme, orJosep Maria Subirachs for expressionist or abstract sculpture and painting of the late twentieth century.
In the field of architecture were developed and adapted to Catalonia different artistic styles prevalent in Europe, leaving footprints in many churches, monasteries and cathedrals, ofRomanesque[230] (the best examples of which are located in the northern half of the territory) andGothic styles. The Gothic developed in Barcelona and its area of influence is known asCatalan Gothic, with some particular characteristics. The church ofSanta Maria del Mar is an example of this kind of style. During the Middle Ages, many fortified castles were built by feudal nobles to mark their powers.
The oldest surviving literary use of the Catalan language is considered to be the religious text known asHomilies d'Organyà, written either in late 11th or early 12thcentury.
There are two historical moments of splendor of Catalan literature. The first begins with the historiographic chronicles of the 13thcentury (chronicles written between the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries narrating the deeds of the monarchs and leading figures of the Crown of Aragon) and the subsequent Golden Age of the 14th and 15thcenturies. After that period, between the 16th and 19thcenturies the Romantichistoriography defined this era as theDecadència, considered as the "decadent" period in Catalan literature because of a general falling into disuse of the vernacular language in cultural contexts and lack of patronage among the nobility.
After the transition to democracy (1975–1978) and the restoration of the Generalitat (1977), literary life and the editorial market have returned to normality and literary production in Catalan is being bolstered with a number of language policies intended to protect Catalan culture. Besides the aforementioned authors, other relevant 20th-century writers of the Francoist and democracy periods includeJoan Brossa,Agustí Bartra,Manuel de Pedrolo,Pere Calders orQuim Monzó.
Castell 4 de 9 amb folre i pilar by Colla Vella de Valls
Castells are one of the main manifestations of Catalan popular culture. The activity consists in constructing human towers by competingcolles castelleres (teams). This practice originated inValls, on the region of the Camp de Tarragona,[231] during the 18th century, and later it was extended to the rest of the territory, especially in the late 20th century. The tradition ofels Castells i els Castellers was declared Masterpiece of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity byUNESCO in 2010.
In main celebrations, other elements of the Catalan popular culture[232] are also usually present: parades withgegants (giants), bigheads, stick-dancers and musicians, and thecorrefoc, where devils and monsters dance and spray showers of sparks using firecrackers. Another traditional celebration in Catalonia isLa Patum de Berga, declared a Masterpiece of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity by theUNESCO on 25 November 2005.[233]
Christmas in Catalonia lasts two days, plusChristmas Eve. On the 25th, Christmas is celebrated, followed by a similar feast on the 26, called Sant Esteve (Saint Steve's Day). This allows families to visit and dine with different sectors of the extended family or get together with friends on the second day.
One of the most deeply rootedChristmas traditions is the popular figure of theTió de Nadal, consisting of an (often hollow) log with a face painted on it and often two little front legs appended, usually wearing a Catalan hat and scarf. The word has nothing to do with the Spanish wordtío, meaning uncle.Tió means log in Catalan. The log is sometimes "found in the woods" (in an event staged for children) and then adopted and taken home, where it is fed and cared for during a month or so. OnChristmas Day or onChristmas Eve, a game is played where children march around the house singing a song requesting the log to poop, then they hit the log with a stick, to make it poop, and lo and behold, as if through magic, it poops candy, and sometimes other small gifts. Usually, the larger or main gifts are brought by the Three Kings on 6 January, and the tió only brings small things.
A tió exhibited at Plaça Sant Jaume in Barcelona in the 2010–2011 Christmas season
St. George's Day (Diada de Sant Jordi) is a widely celebrated festival in all Catalan towns on 23 April dedicated to thepatron saint of Catalonia, and includes an exchange of books and roses between sweethearts and loved ones,[234] therefore, serving to the same romantic purpose that ofSaint Valentine's Day in Anglophone countries.
In addition to traditional local Catalan culture, traditions from other parts of Spain can be found as a result of migration from other regions, for instance the celebration of the AndalusianFeria de Abril in Catalonia.
Thesardana is considered to be the most characteristic Catalan folk dance, interpreted to the rhythm oftamborí,tible andtenora (from the oboe family),trumpet, trombó (trombone), fiscorn (family of bugles) and contrabaix with three strings played by acobla, and are danced in a circle dance. Other tunes and dances of the traditional music are the contrapàs (obsolete today),ball de bastons (the "dance of sticks"), the moixiganga, the goigs (popular songs), thegalops or thejota in the southern part. Thehavaneres are characteristic in some marine localities of the Costa Brava, especially during the summer months when these songs are sung outdoors accompanied by acremat of burned rum.
Art music was first developed, up to the nineteenth century and, as in much of Europe, in a liturgical setting, particularly marked by the Escolania de Montserrat. The main Western musical trends have marked these productions, medieval monodies or polyphonies, with the work ofAbbot Oliba in the eleventh century or the compilationLlibre Vermell de Montserrat ("Red Book of Montserrat") from the fourteenth century. Through the Renaissance there were authors such asPere Albert Vila,Joan Brudieu or the twoMateu Fletxa ("The Old" and "The Young"). Baroque had composers likeJoan Cererols. The Romantic music was represented by composers such asFernando Sor,Josep Anselm Clavé (father of choir movement in Catalonia and responsible of the music folk reviving) orFelip Pedrell.
Modernisme also expressed in musical terms from the end of the 19th century onwards, mixing folkloric and post-romantic influences, through the works ofIsaac Albéniz andEnric Granados. The avant-garde spirit initiated by the modernists is prolonged throughout the twentieth century, thanks to the activities of theOrfeó Català, a choral society founded in 1891, with its monumental concert hall, thePalau de la Música Catalana in Catalan, built by Lluís Domènech i Montaner from 1905 to 1908, theBarcelona Symphony Orchestra created in 1944 and composers, conductors and musicians engaged against the Francoism likeRobert Gerhard,Eduard Toldrà andPau Casals.
Catalonia is the autonomous community, along with Madrid, that has the most media (TV, magazines, newspapers etc.). In Catalonia there is a wide variety of local and comarcal media. With the restoration of democracy, many newspapers and magazines, until then in the hands of the Franco government, were recovered in order to convert them into free and democratic media, while local radio and television began broadcasting.
Televisió de Catalunya, which broadcasts entirely in the Catalan language, is the main Catalan public network. It has five channels:TV3,El 33,Super3,3/24,Esport3 andTV3CAT. In 2018, TV3 became the first television channel to be the most viewed for nine consecutive years in Catalonia.[236][237] State television that broadcasts in Catalonia in the Spanish language includeTelevisión Española (with few emissions in Catalan),Antena 3,Cuatro,Telecinco, andLa Sexta. Other smaller Catalan television channels include local television channels, notablybetevé, owned by theCity Council of Barcelona, and broadcast in Catalan.
The two main Catalan newspapers of general information areEl Periódico de Catalunya andLa Vanguardia, both with editions in Catalan and Spanish. Catalan only published newspapers includeAra andEl Punt Avui (from the fusion ofEl Punt andAvui in 2011), as well as most part of the local press. The Spanish newspapers, such asEl País,El Mundo orLa Razón, can be also acquired.
Catalonia has a long tradition of use of radio, the first regular radio broadcast in the country was from Ràdio Barcelona in 1924.[238] Today, the publicCatalunya Ràdio (owned byCatalan Media Corporation) and the privateRAC 1 (belonging to Grup Godó) are the two main radio stations of Catalonia, both in Catalan.
Regarding the cinema, after the democratic transition, three styles have dominated since then. First, auteur cinema, in the continuity of theBarcelona School, emphasizes experimentation and form, while focusing on developing social and political themes. Worn first byJosep Maria Forn orBigas Luna, then byMarc Recha,Jaime Rosales andAlbert Serra, this genre has achieved some international recognition. Then, thedocumentary became another genre particularly representative of contemporary Catalan cinema, boosted byJoaquim Jordà i Català andJosé Luis Guerín. Later, horror films and thrillers have also emerged as a specialty of the Catalan film industry, thanks in particular to the vitality of theSitges Film Festival, created in 1968. Several directors have gained worldwide renown thanks to this genre, starting with Jaume Balagueró and his seriesREC (co-directed with Valencian Paco Plaza),Juan Antonio Bayona andEl Orfanato orJaume Collet-Serra withOrphan,Unknown andNon-Stop.
Catalan actors have shot for Spanish and international productions, such asSergi López.
TheMuseum of Cinema - Tomàs Mallol Collection (Museu del Cinema – Col.lecció Tomàs Mallol in Catalan) of Girona is home of important permanent exhibitions of cinema and pre-cinema objects. Other important institutions for the promotion of cinema are theGaudí Awards (Premis Gaudí in Catalan, which replaced from 2009 Barcelona Film Awards themselves created in 2002), serving as equivalent for Catalonia to the SpanishGoya or FrenchCésar.
The flag of Catalonia flying on theMontjuïc Castle, Barcelona
Catalonia has its own representative and distinctive national symbols, some of them officially recognized, such as:[239]
The flag of Catalonia, popularly known as theSenyera, is avexillological symbol based on thecoat of arms of the Crown of Aragon, which consists of four red stripes on a golden background. It has been an official symbol since 25 May 1933.
The national anthem of Catalonia isEls Segadors and was written in its present form by Emili Guanyavents in 1899. The song is official by law from 25 February 1993.[241][242] It is based on the events of 1640 during theReapers' War.
Weaver's broom, the national flower of Catalonia
In addition, various celebrations, objects, images, people or cultural icons maintain recognition at national or international level as Catalan national symbols. Certain former institutions from the Principality of Catalonia, like the Catalan constitutions andUsatges, theConsell de Cent and the Catalan Courts are valued as historical Catalan forms of government. Places like the Poblet Monastery where the ancient monarchs lie buried are especially revered.[243] Many of these symbols come from Catalan folklore, like the sardana dance, the castells, gegants i capgrossos, correfoc, Saint George's Day, as well as thewyvern.
The yellowweaver's broom (Spartium junceum) has often been regarded as the national flower in literature, specially in combination with red poppies.[244] The "ruc català" (Catalan donkey) is a relatively recent creation, in order to produce something Catalan to oppose to theOsborne bull, widely perceived as a Spanish nationalist symbol. Iconic mountains like theCanigó, Montserrat and the striking double-peakedPedraforca, are seen as geographyc ancestral symbols.
Seny is a form of ancestral Catalan wisdom or sensibleness. It involves well-pondered perception of situations, level-headedness, awareness, integrity, and right action. Many Catalans consider seny something unique to their culture, as it is based on a set of ancestral local customs stemming from the scale of values and social norms of their society.
Sport has had a distinct importance in Catalan life and culture since the beginning of the 20th century; consequently, the region has a well-developed sports infrastructure. The main sports arefootball,basketball,handball,rink hockey,tennis andmotorsport.
While the most popular sports are represented at international level by the Spanish national teams, Catalonia plays as itself in some minor ones, such askorfball,futsal orrugby league.[245] Various Catalan Sports Federations have a long tradition and some of them participated in the foundation of international sports federations, as theCatalan Federation of Rugby, that was one of the founder members of theFédération Internationale de Rugby Amateur (FIRA) in 1934.[246] The majority of Catalan sport federations are part of theSports Federation Union of Catalonia (Catalan:Unió de Federacions Esportives de Catalunya), founded in 1933. The presence of separate Catalan teams has caused disputes with Spanish sports institutions, as happened toroller hockey in the controversialFresno Case (2004).[247]
TheCatalan Football Federation also periodically fields anational team against international opposition, organizing friendly matches. In the recent years they have played with Bulgaria, Argentina, Brazil, Basque Country, Colombia, Nigeria, Cape Verde and Tunisia. The biggest football clubs areBarcelona (also known asBarça), who have won five European Cups (UEFA Champions League), andEspanyol, who have twice been runner-up of theUEFA Cup (now UEFA Europa League). As of December 2024, Barça, Espanyol andGirona FC play in the top Spanish League (La Liga).
The Catalanwaterpolo is one of the main powers of the Iberian Peninsula. The Catalans won triumphs in waterpolo competitions at European and world level by club (the Barcelona was champion of Europe in 1981/82 and the Catalonia in 1994/95) and national team (one gold and one silver in Olympic Games and World Championships). It also has many internationalsynchronized swimming champions.
Motorsport has a long tradition in Catalonia, which involving many people, with some world champions and several competitions organized since the beginning of the 20th century. TheCircuit de Catalunya, built in 1991, is one of the main motorsport venues, holding the Catalan motorcycle Grand Prix, the Spanish F1 Grand Prix, a DTM race, and several other races.
Catalan gastronomy has a long culinary tradition. Various local food recipes have been described in documents dating from the fifteenth century. As with all the cuisines of the Mediterranean, Catatonian dishes make abundant use offish, seafood,olive oil,bread andvegetables. Regional specialties include thepa amb tomàquet (bread with tomato), which consists of bread (sometimes toasted), andtomato seasoned with olive oil and salt. Often the dish is accompanied with any number of sausages (curedbotifarres,fuet, iberic ham, etc.), ham or cheeses. Others dishes include thecalçotada,escudella i carn d'olla,suquet de peix (fish stew), and adessert,Catalan cream.
^Catalan and Occitan (Aranese in Aran) are the languages of Catalonia and Aran (respectively) and official languages of the autonomous community of Catalonia according with its Statute of Autonomy.[6]
^LSC was officially recognized as one of Catalonia's official languages on 3 June 2010 when Law 17/2010 of the Catalan Sign Language (LSC) was approved by the government.[7][8]
^In addition to the legal definition as a nationality, Catalonia is also defined as anation in the preamble of its 2006 Statute of Autonomy, although its effectiveness was challenged by theConstitutional Court of Spain in 2010, which declared this definition without legal force. However, the word was not modified nor suppressed, thus remaining in the text.[10]
^Puigdemont is still wanted by the government in Madrid.[16]
^"The Spanish Constitution"(PDF).Agencia Estatal Boletín Oficial del Estado. BOE.Archived(PDF) from the original on 4 March 2016. Retrieved26 July 2016.
^"Statute of Autonomy of Catalonia, article 1". Gencat.cat. Archived fromthe original on 28 May 2008. Retrieved13 September 2013.Catalonia, as a nationality, exercises its self-government constituted as an autonomous community, in accordance with the Constitution and with this Statute, which is its basic institutional law.
^"Welcome to Catalonia". Ministry for Foreign Action and European Union.Archived from the original on 27 March 2024. Retrieved27 March 2024.
^Salrach, Josep Mª.Catalunya a la fi del primer mil·leni. Pagès Editors (Lleida, 2004), pp. 144–149.
^Ryder, Alan (2007).The Wreck of Catalonia. Civil War in the Fifteenth Century. Oxford University Press. p. v.ISBN978-0-19-920736-7.This group of states comprised the kingdoms of Aragon, Valencia, and Majorca, the principality of Catalonia, and the counties of Roussillon and Cerdagne; further afield it embraced the kingdoms of Sicily and Sardinia. These states had no common institutions or bonds save allegiance to a common sovereign
^Badia i Margarit, Antoni, 1981,Gramàtica històrica catalana, Barcelona; see also Miguel Vidal's "Etymology of català, Catalunya", availablehereArchived 1 November 2020 at theWayback Machine.
^Sabaté, Flocel (2015).Anàlisi històrica de la identitat catalana. Barcelona, Institut d ́Estudis Catalans: p. 27; Publicacions de la Presidència (1).
^Guilaine, Jean; Michel Barbaza, David Geddes, Jean-Louis Vernet, Miguel Llongueras & Maria Hopf (1982). "Prehistoric Human Adaptations in Catalonia (Spain)",Journal of Field Archaeology, 9:4, 407–416.
^Tarrus, Josep. "La Draga (Banyoles, Catalonia), an Early Neolithic Lakeside Village in Mediterranean Europe".Catalan Historical Review, vol. 1, 2008, pp. 17–33.
^Ramos, Luis G-G (2002).Las Invasiones Bárbaras en Hispania y la Creación del Reino Visigodo. Barcelona: Ariel. pp. 3–30.ISBN978-84-344-6668-5
^Salrach, Josep Mª.Catalunya a la fi del primer mil·leni. Pagès Editors, (Lleida, 2004) pp. 144–49.
^Cingolani, Stefano Maria (2006). "Seguir les Vestígies dels Antecessors. Llinatge, Reialesa i Historiografia a Catalunya des de Ramon Berenguer IV a Pere II (1131–1285)", Anuario de Estudios Medievales, p 225.
^Valls Junyent, Francesc (2004).La Catalunya atlàntica: aiguardent i teixits a l'arrencada industrial catalana [Atlantic Catalonia: brandy and textiles at the beginning of the catalan industrialisation] (in Catalan). Vic: Eumo.ISBN84-9766-044-7.
^"Geological map of Catalonia". Institut Cartogràfic i Geològic de Catalunya. 2016.Archived from the original on 12 October 2017. Retrieved11 October 2017.
^"Baròmetre d'Opinió"(PDF) (in Catalan). Center for Public Opinion Studies. Archived fromthe original(PDF) on 11 September 2016. Retrieved9 September 2016.
^Wihtol de Wenden, Catherine.Atlas des migrations dans le monde, Réfugiés ou migrants volontaires, Alternatives Economiques, éd. Autrement, Paris, 2009.
^Climent-Ferrando, Vicent. "Immigration in Catalonia: In Search of a Public Philosophy".Project ALIAS—Autonomy, Labour and Integration in South Tyrol (Bozen: European Academy of Bolzen/Bolzano) (2012).
^Jeram, Sanjay (2017). "Despite the crisis: The resilience of intercultural nationalism in Catalonia".International Migration.55 (2):53–67.doi:10.1111/imig.12323.S2CID151628467.
^Kleiner-Liebau, D. "Migration and the Construction of National Identity in Spain (Frankfurt: Vervuert)". (2009).
^"Catalonia 2016".europeanregionofgastronomy.org. International Institute of Gastronomy, Culture, Arts and Tourism.Archived from the original on 10 June 2021. Retrieved10 June 2021.
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