Launched aboard aTitan IVB/Centaur on October 15, 1997,Cassini was active in space for nearly 20 years, spending its final 13 years orbiting Saturn and studying the planet and its system afterentering orbit on July 1, 2004.[10]
The voyage to Saturn includedflybys ofVenus (April 1998 and July 1999),Earth (August 1999), the asteroid2685 Masursky, andJupiter (December 2000). The mission ended on September 15, 2017, whenCassini's trajectory took it into Saturn's upper atmosphere and it burned up[11][12] in order to prevent any risk of contaminating Saturn's moons, which might have offered habitable environments to stowaway terrestrial microbes on the spacecraft.[13][14] The mission was successful beyond expectations – NASA'sPlanetary Science Division Director,Jim Green, describedCassini-Huygens as a "mission of firsts"[15] that has revolutionized human understanding of the Saturn system, including its moons and rings, and our understanding of where life might be found in theSolar System.[16]
Cassini's planners originally scheduled a mission of four years, from June 2004 to May 2008. The mission was extended for another two years until September 2010, branded theCassini Equinox Mission. The mission was extended a second and final time with theCassini Solstice Mission, lasting another seven years until September 15, 2017, on which dateCassini was de-orbited to burn up in Saturn's upper atmosphere.[17]
TheHuygens module traveled withCassini until its separation from the probe on December 25, 2004; Huygens landed byparachute on Titan on January 14, 2005. The separation was facilitated by the SED (Spin/Eject device), which provided a relative separation speed of 0.35 metres per second (1.1 ft/s) and a spin rate of 7.5 rpm.[18] It returned data to Earth for around 90 minutes, using the orbiter as a relay. This was the firstlanding ever accomplished in the outer Solar System and the first landing on a moon other than Earth's Moon.
At the end of its mission, theCassini spacecraft executed its "Grand Finale": a number of risky passes through the gaps between Saturn and its inner rings.[5][6]This phase aimed to maximizeCassini's scientific outcome before the spacecraft was intentionally destroyed[19] to prevent potential contamination of Saturn's moons ifCassini were to unintentionally crash into them when maneuvering the probe was no longer possible due to power loss or other communication issues at the end of its operational lifespan. Theatmospheric entry ofCassini ended the mission, but analysis of the returned data will continue for many years.[16]
Scientists and individuals from 27 countries made up the joint team responsible for designing, building, flying and collecting data from theCassini orbiter and theHuygens probe.[16]
NASA provided the VIMS infrared counterpart, as well as the Main Electronic Assembly, which included electronic sub-assemblies provided byCNES of France.[21][22]
On April 16, 2008, NASA announced a two-year extension of the funding for ground operations of this mission, at which point it was renamed theCassini Equinox Mission.[23]It was extended again in February 2010 as theCassini Solstice Mission.
The mission consisted of two main elements: the ASI/NASACassini orbiter, named for the Italian astronomerGiovanni Domenico Cassini, discoverer ofSaturn's ring divisions and four of its satellites; and the ESA-developedHuygens probe, named for the Dutch astronomer, mathematician and physicistChristiaan Huygens, discoverer of Titan.
The mission was commonly called Saturn Orbiter Titan Probe (SOTP) during gestation, both as aMariner Mark II mission and generically.[24]
The total cost of this scientific exploration mission was about US$3.26 billion, including $1.4 billion for pre-launch development, $704million for mission operations, $54 million for tracking and $422 million for the launch vehicle. The United States contributed $2.6 billion (80%), the ESA $500 million (15%), and the ASI $160 million (5%).[27] However, these figures are from the press kit which was prepared in October 2000. They do not include inflation over the course of a very long mission, nor do they include the cost of the extended missions.
The primary mission forCassini was completed on July 30, 2008. The mission was extended to June 2010 (Cassini Equinox Mission).[28] This studied the Saturn system in detail during the planet'sequinox, which happened in August 2009.[23]
On February 3, 2010, NASA announced another extension forCassini, lasting 61⁄2 years until 2017, ending at the time of summer solstice in Saturn's northern hemisphere (Cassini Solstice Mission). The extension enabled another 155 revolutions around the planet, 54 flybys of Titan and 11 flybys ofEnceladus.[29]In 2017, an encounter with Titan changed its orbit in such a way that, at closest approach to Saturn, it was only 3,000 km (1,900 mi) above the planet's cloudtops, below the inner edge of theD ring. This sequence of "proximal orbits" ended when its final encounter with Titan sent the probe into Saturn's atmosphere to be destroyed.
Huygens' explanation for the aspects of Saturn,Systema Saturnium (1659)ATitan IV-B rocket andCentaur-T upper stage with theCassini–Huygens payload atLC-40, three days before its 15 October 1997 launch
Cassini–Huygens's origins date to 1982, when theEuropean Science Foundation and the AmericanNational Academy of Sciences formed aworking group to investigate future cooperative missions. Two European scientists suggested a paired Saturn Orbiter and Titan Probe as a possible joint mission. In 1983, NASA'sSolar System Exploration Committee recommended the same Orbiter and Probe pair as a core NASA project. NASA and theEuropean Space Agency (ESA) performed a joint study of the potential mission from 1984 to 1985. ESA continued with its own study in 1986, while the American astronautSally Ride, in her influential 1987 reportNASA Leadership and America's Future in Space, also examined and approved of theCassini mission.[30]
While Ride's report described the Saturn orbiter and probe as a NASA solo mission, in 1988 the Associate Administrator for Space Science and Applications of NASA, Len Fisk, returned to the idea of a joint NASA and ESA mission. He wrote to his counterpart at ESA, Roger Bonnet, strongly suggesting that ESA choose theCassini mission from the three candidates at hand and promising that NASA would commit to the mission as soon as ESA did.[31]
At the time, NASA was becoming more sensitive to the strain that had developed between the American and European space programs as a result of European perceptions that NASA had not treated it like an equal during previous collaborations. NASA officials and advisers involved in promoting and planningCassini–Huygens attempted to correct this trend by stressing their desire to evenly share any scientific and technology benefits resulting from the mission. In part, this newfound spirit of cooperation with Europe was driven by a sense of competition with theSoviet Union, which had begun to cooperate more closely with Europe as ESA drew further away from NASA. Late in 1988, ESA chose Cassini–Huygens as its next major mission and the following year the program received major funding in the US.[32][33]
The collaboration not only improved relations between the two space programs but also helpedCassini–Huygens survive congressional budget cuts in the United States.Cassini–Huygens came under fire politically in both 1992 and 1994, but NASA successfully persuaded theUnited States Congress that it would be unwise to halt the project after ESA had already poured funds into development because frustration on broken space exploration promises might spill over into other areas of foreign relations. The project proceeded politically smoothly after 1994, although citizens' groups concerned about the potential environmental impact a launch failure might have (because of its plutonium power source) attempted to derail it through protests and lawsuits until and past its 1997 launch.[34][35][36][37][38]
The spacecraft was planned to be the second three-axis stabilized,RTG-poweredMariner Mark II, a class of spacecraft developed for missions beyond the orbit ofMars, after theComet Rendezvous Asteroid Flyby (CRAF) mission, but budget cuts and project rescopings forced NASA to terminate CRAF development to saveCassini. As a result,Cassini became more specialized. The Mariner Mark II series was cancelled.
The combined orbiter and probe was at the time the third-largest uncrewedinterplanetary spacecraft ever successfully launched, behind thePhobos 1 and2 Mars probes, as well as being among the most complex;[39][40] NASA'sEuropa Clipper became the new third-largest probe upon its launch in 2024.[41] The orbiter had a mass of 2,150 kg (4,740 lb), the probe 350 kg (770 lb) including 30 kg (66 lb) of probe support equipment left on the orbiter. With the launch vehicle adapter and 3,132 kg (6,905 lb) of propellants at launch, the spacecraft had a mass of 5,600 kg (12,300 lb).
TheCassini spacecraft was 6.8 meters (22 ft) high and 4 meters (13 ft) wide. Itsbus was adodecagonal prism atop a conicalfrustum connecting it to a cylinder containing the propellant tanks, to which the RTGs andHuygens were attached.[42] Spacecraft complexity was increased by itstrajectory (flight path) to Saturn, and by the ambitious science at its destination.Cassini had 1,630 interconnectedelectronic components, 22,000 wire connections, and 14 kilometers (8.7 mi) of cabling.[43] The core control computer CPU was a redundant system using theMIL-STD-1750Ainstruction set architecture. The main propulsion system consisted of one prime and one backupR-4D bipropellant rocket engine. The thrust of each engine was 490 N (110 lbf) and the total spacecraftdelta-v was 2,352 m/s (5,260 mph).[44] Smaller monopropellant rockets provided attitude control.
Cassini was powered by 32.7 kg (72 lb) of nuclear fuel, mainlyplutonium dioxide (containing 28.3 kg (62 lb) of pureplutonium).[45] The heat from the material's radioactive decay was turned into electricity.Huygens was supported byCassini during cruise, but used chemical batteries when independent.
The probe contained a DVD with more than 616,400 signatures from citizens in 81 countries, collected in a public campaign.[46][47]
Until September 2017 theCassini probe continued orbiting Saturn at a distance of between 8.2 and 10.2astronomical units (1.23×109 and 1.53×109km; 760,000,000 and 950,000,000 mi) from the Earth. It took 68 to 84 minutes for radio signals totravel from Earth to the spacecraft, and vice versa. Thus ground controllers could not give "real-time" instructions for daily operations or for unexpected events. Even if response were immediate, more than two hours would have passed between the occurrence of a problem and the reception of the engineers' response by the satellite.
Titan's surface revealed by VIMSRhea in front of SaturnSaturn'snorth polar hexagon[48]Saturn in natural-color (January 2010)Animated 3D model of the spacecraft
CAPS was an in situ instrument that measured the flux of charged particles at the location of the spacecraft, as a function of direction and energy. The ion composition was also measured using atime-of-flight mass spectrometer. CAPS measured particles produced by ionisation of molecules originating from Saturn's and Titan's ionosphere, as well as the plumes of Enceladus. CAPS also investigatedplasma in these areas, along with thesolar wind and its interaction with Saturn's magnetosphere.[49][50] CAPS was turned off in June 2011, as a precaution due to a "soft" electricalshort circuit that occurred in the instrument. It was powered on again in March 2012, but after 78 days another short circuit forced the instrument to be shut down permanently.[51]
The CDA was an in situ instrument that measured the size, speed, and direction of tiny dust grains near Saturn. It could also measure the grains' chemical elements.[52] Some of these particles orbited Saturn, while others came from other star systems. The CDA on the orbiter was designed to learn more about these particles, the materials in other celestial bodies and potentially about the origins of the universe.[49]
Composite Infrared Spectrometer (CIRS)
The CIRS was a remote sensing instrument that measured theinfrared radiation coming from objects to learn about their temperatures, thermal properties, and compositions. Throughout theCassini–Huygens mission, the CIRS measured infrared emissions from atmospheres, rings and surfaces in the vast Saturn system. It mapped the atmosphere of Saturn in three dimensions to determine temperature and pressure profiles with altitude, gas composition, and the distribution ofaerosols and clouds. It also measured thermal characteristics and the composition of satellite surfaces and rings.[49]
Ion and Neutral Mass Spectrometer (INMS)
The INMS was an in situ instrument that measured the composition of charged particles (protons and heavier ions) and neutral particles (atoms and molecules) near Titan and Saturn to learn more about their atmospheres. The instrument used aquadrupole mass spectrometer. INMS was also intended to measure the positive ion and neutral environments of Saturn's icy satellites and rings.[49][53][54]
Imaging Science Subsystem (ISS)
The ISS was a remote sensing instrument that captured most images invisible light, and also some infrared images andultraviolet images. The ISS took hundreds of thousands of images of Saturn, its rings, and its moons. The ISS had both a wide-angle camera (WAC) and a narrow-angle camera (NAC). Each of these cameras used a sensitivecharge-coupled device (CCD) as itselectromagnetic wave detector. Each CCD had a 1,024x1,024 square array of pixels, each pixel 12 μm square. Both cameras allowed for many data collection modes, including on-chip data compression, and were fitted with spectral filters that rotated on a wheel to view different bands within the electromagnetic spectrum ranging from 0.2 to 1.1 μm.[49][55]
The MAG was an in situ instrument that measured the strength and direction of themagnetic field around Saturn. The magnetic fields are generated partly by the molten core at Saturn's center. Measuring the magnetic field is one of the ways to probe the core. MAG aimed to develop a three-dimensional model of Saturn's magnetosphere, and determine the magnetic state of Titan and its atmosphere, and the icy satellites and their role in the magnetosphere of Saturn.[49][56]
Magnetospheric Imaging Instrument (MIMI)
The MIMI was both an in situ and remote sensing instrument that produces images and other data about the particles trapped in Saturn's huge magnetic field, or magnetosphere. The in situ component measured energetic ions and electrons while the remote sensing component (the Ion And Neutral Camera, INCA) was anenergetic neutral atom imager.[57] This information was used to study the overall configuration and dynamics of the magnetosphere and its interactions with the solar wind, Saturn's atmosphere, Titan, rings, and icy satellites.[49][58]
Radar
The on-board radar was an active and passive sensing instrument that produced maps of Titan's surface. Radar waves were powerful enough to penetrate the thick veil of haze surrounding Titan. By measuring the send and return time of the signals it is possible to determine the height of large surface features, such as mountains and canyons. The passive radar listened for radio waves that Saturn or its moons may emit.[49]
Radio and Plasma Wave Science instrument (RPWS)
The RPWS was an in situ instrument and remote sensing instrument that receives and measures radio signals coming from Saturn, including the radio waves given off by the interaction of the solar wind with Saturn and Titan. RPWS measured the electric and magnetic wave fields in the interplanetary medium and planetary magnetospheres. It also determined the electron density and temperature near Titan and in some regions of Saturn's magnetosphere using either plasma waves at characteristic frequencies (e.g. theupper hybrid line) or aLangmuir probe. RPWS studied the configuration of Saturn's magnetic field and its relationship to Saturn Kilometric Radiation (SKR), as well as monitoring and mapping Saturn's ionosphere, plasma, and lightning from Saturn's (and possibly Titan's) atmosphere.[49]
The RSS was a remote-sensing instrument that used radio antennas on Earth to observe the way radio signals from the spacecraft changed as they were sent through objects, such as Titan's atmosphere or Saturn's rings, or even behind theSun. The RSS also studied the compositions, pressures and temperatures of atmospheres and ionospheres, radial structure and particle size distribution within rings, body and system masses and thegravitational field. The instrument used the spacecraft X-band communication link as well as S-band downlink and Ka-band uplink and downlink.[49]Cassini UVIS instrument built by the Laboratory for Atmospheric and Space Physics at the University of Colorado.
Ultraviolet Imaging Spectrograph (UVIS)
The UVIS was a remote-sensing instrument that captured images of the ultraviolet light reflected off an object, such as the clouds of Saturn and/or its rings, to learn more about their structure and composition. Designed to measure ultraviolet light over wavelengths from 55.8 to 190 nm, this instrument was also a tool to help determine the composition, distribution, aerosol particle content and temperatures of their atmospheres. Unlike other types of spectrometer, this sensitive instrument could take both spectral and spatial readings. It was particularly adept at determining the composition of gases. Spatial observations took a wide-by-narrow view, only onepixel tall and 64 pixels across. The spectral dimension was 1,024 pixels per spatial pixel. It could also take many images that create movies of the ways in which this material is moved around by other forces.[49]UVIS consisted of four separate detector channels, the Far Ultraviolet (FUV), Extreme Ultraviolet (EUV), High Speed Photometer (HSP) and the Hydrogen-Deuterium Absorption Cell (HDAC). UVIS collected hyperspectral imagery and discrete spectra of Saturn, its moons and its rings, as well as stellar occultation data.[59]
The HSP channel is designed to observe starlight that passes through Saturn's rings (known as stellar occultations) in order to understand the structure and optical depth of the rings.[60] Stellar occultation data from both the HSP and FUV channels confirmed the existence of water vapor plumes at the south pole of Enceladus, as well as characterized the composition of the plumes.[61]
VIMS spectra taken while looking throughTitan's atmosphere towards theSun helped understand the atmospheres ofexoplanets (artist's concept; May 27, 2014).
Visible and Infrared Mapping Spectrometer (VIMS)
The VIMS was a remote sensing instrument that captured images using visible and infrared light to learn more about the composition of moon surfaces, the rings, and the atmospheres of Saturn and Titan. It consisted of two cameras - one used to measure visible light, the other infrared. VIMS measured reflected and emitted radiation from atmospheres, rings and surfaces over wavelengths from 350 to 5100 nm, to help determine their compositions, temperatures and structures. It also observed the sunlight and starlight that passes through the rings to learn more about their structure. Scientists used VIMS for long-term studies of cloud movement and morphology in the Saturn system, to determine Saturn's weather patterns.[49]
Because of Saturn's distance from the Sun,solar arrays were not feasible as power sources for this space probe.[62] To generate enough power, such arrays would have been too large and too heavy.[62] Instead, theCassini orbiter was powered by threeGPHS-RTGradioisotope thermoelectric generators, which use heat from the decay of about 33 kg (73 lb) ofplutonium-238 (in the form ofplutonium dioxide) to generate direct current electricity viathermoelectrics.[62]The RTGs on theCassini mission have the same design as those used on theNew Horizons,Galileo, andUlysses space probes, and they were designed to have very long operational lifetimes.[62]At the end of the nominal 11-yearCassini mission, they were still able to produce 600 to 700 watts of electrical power.[62] (Leftover hardware from theCassini RTG Program was modified and used to power theNew Horizons mission toPluto and theKuiper belt, which was designed and launched later.[63])
Power distribution was accomplished by 192solid-statepower switches, which also functioned ascircuit breakers in the event of an overload condition. The switches usedMOSFETs that featured better efficiency and a longer lifetime as compared to conventional switches, while at the same time eliminatingtransients. However, these solid-state circuit breakers were prone to erroneous tripping (presumably from cosmic rays), requiring them to reset and causing losses in experimental data.[64]
A glowing-hot plutonium pellet that is the power source of the probe's radioisotope thermoelectric generator
To gainmomentum while already in flight, the trajectory of theCassini mission included severalgravitational slingshot maneuvers: two fly-by passes ofVenus, one more of the Earth, and then one of the planetJupiter. The terrestrial flyby was the final instance when the probe posed any conceivable danger to human beings. The maneuver was successful, withCassini passing by 1,171 km (728 mi) above the Earth on August 18, 1999.[1]Had there been any malfunction causing the probe to collide with the Earth, NASA's complete environmental impact study estimated that, in the worst case (with an acute angle of entry in whichCassini would gradually burn up), a significant fraction of the 33 kg[45] of nuclear fuel inside the RTGs would have been dispersed into the Earth's atmosphere so that up to five billion people (i.e. almost the entire terrestrial population) could have been exposed, causing up to an estimated 5,000 additional cancer deaths over the subsequent decades[65] (0.0005 per cent, i.e. a fraction 0.000005, of a billion cancer deaths expected anyway from other causes; the product is incorrectly calculated elsewhere[66] as 500,000 deaths). However, the chance of this happening were estimated to be less than one in one million, i.e. a chance of one person dying (assuming 5,000 deaths) as less than 1 in 200.[65]
NASA's risk analysis to use plutonium was publicly criticized byMichio Kaku on the grounds that casualties, property damage, and lawsuits resulting from a possible accident, as well as the potential use of other energy sources, such as solar and fuel cells, were underestimated.[67]
TheCassini spacecraft was capable of transmitting in several different telemetry formats. The telemetry subsystem is perhaps the most important subsystem, because without it there could be no data return.
The telemetry was developed from the ground up, due to the spacecraft using a more modern set of computers than previous missions.[68] Therefore,Cassini was the first spacecraft to adoptmini-packets to reduce the complexity of the Telemetry Dictionary, and the software development process led to the creation of a Telemetry Manager for the mission.
There were around 1088 channels (in 67 mini-packets) assembled in theCassini Telemetry Dictionary. Out of these 67 lower complexity mini-packets, 6 mini-packets contained the subsystem covariance and Kalman gain elements (161 measurements), not used during normal mission operations. This left 947 measurements in 61 mini-packets.
A total of seven telemetry maps corresponding to 7 AACS telemetry modes were constructed. These modes are: (1) Record; (2) Nominal Cruise; (3) Medium Slow Cruise; (4) Slow Cruise; (5) Orbital Ops; (6) Av; (7) ATE (Attitude Estimator) Calibration. These 7 maps cover all spacecraft telemetry modes.
TheHuygens probe, supplied by theEuropean Space Agency (ESA) and named after the 17th century Dutch astronomer who first discovered Titan,Christiaan Huygens, scrutinized the clouds, atmosphere, and surface of Saturn's moon Titan in its descent on January 15, 2005. It was designed to enter and brake in Titan's atmosphere and parachute a fully instrumented robotic laboratory down to the surface.[69]
The probe system consisted of the probe itself which descended to Titan, and the probe support equipment (PSE) which remained attached to the orbiting spacecraft. The PSE includes electronics that track the probe, recover the data gathered during its descent, and process and deliver the data to the orbiter that transmits it to Earth. The core control computer CPU was a redundantMIL-STD-1750A control system.
The data were transmitted by a radio link betweenHuygens andCassini provided by Probe Data Relay Subsystem (PDRS). As the probe's mission could not be telecommanded from Earth because of the great distance, it was automatically managed by the Command Data Management Subsystem (CDMS). The PDRS and CDMS were provided by theItalian Space Agency (ASI).
AfterCassini's launch, it was discovered that data sent from theHuygens probe toCassini orbiter (and then re-transmitted to Earth) would be largely unreadable. The cause was that thebandwidth of signal processing electronics was too narrow and the anticipatedDoppler shift between the lander and the mother craft would put the signals out of the system's range. Thus,Cassini's receiver would be unable to receive the data fromHuygens during its descent to Titan.[19]
A work-around was found to recover the mission. The trajectory ofCassini was altered to reduce the line of sight velocity and therefore the doppler shift.[19][70]Cassini's subsequent trajectory was identical to the previously planned one, although the change replaced two orbits prior to theHuygens mission with three, shorter orbits.
TheCassini space probe performed twogravitational-assist flybys ofVenus on April 26, 1998, and June 24, 1999. These flybys provided the space probe with enough momentum to travel all the way out to theasteroid belt, while the Sun's gravity pulled the space probe back into the inner Solar System.
On August 18, 1999, at 03:28 UTC, the craft made a gravitational-assist flyby of the Earth. One hour and 20 minutes before closest approach,Cassini made its closest approach to the Earth's Moon at 377,000 kilometers, and it took a series of calibration photos.
On January 23, 2000,Cassini performed a flyby of theasteroid2685 Masursky at around 10:00 UTC. It took photos[71] in the period five to seven hours before the flyby at a distance of 1.6×10^6 km (0.99×10^6 mi) and a diameter of 15 to 20 km (9.3 to 12.4 mi) was estimated for the asteroid.
Cassini made its closest approach to Jupiter on December 30, 2000, at 9.7 million kilometers, and made many scientific measurements. About 26,000 images of Jupiter, itsfaint rings, and itsmoons were taken during the six-month flyby. It produced the most detailed global color portrait of the planet yet (see image at right), in which the smallest visible features are approximately 60 km (37 mi) across.[72]
Cassini photographed Iotransiting Jupiter on January 1, 2001.
A major finding of the flyby, announced on March 6, 2003, was of Jupiter's atmospheric circulation. Dark "belts" alternate with light "zones" in the atmosphere, and scientists had long considered the zones, with their pale clouds, to be areas of upwelling air, partly because many clouds on Earth form where air is rising. But analysis ofCassini imagery showed that individual storm cells of upwelling bright-white clouds, too small to see from Earth, pop up almost without exception in the dark belts. According toAnthony Del Genio of NASA'sGoddard Institute for Space Studies, "the belts must be the areas of net-rising atmospheric motion on Jupiter, [so] the net motion in the zones has to be sinking".
Other atmospheric observations included a swirling dark oval of high atmospheric haze, about the size of theGreat Red Spot, near Jupiter's north pole. Infrared imagery revealed aspects of circulation near the poles, with bands of globe-encircling winds, with adjacent bands moving in opposite directions.
The same announcement also discussed the nature of Jupiter'srings. Light scattering by particles in the rings showed the particles were irregularly shaped (rather than spherical) and likely originate as ejecta frommicrometeorite impacts on Jupiter's moons, probablyMetis andAdrastea.
On October 10, 2003, the mission's science team announced the results of tests ofAlbert Einstein'sgeneral theory of relativity, performed by usingradio waves transmitted from theCassini space probe.[73] The radio scientists measured afrequency shift in the radio waves to and from the spacecraft, as they passed close to the Sun. According to the general theory of relativity, a massive object like theSun causesspace-time to curve, causing a beam of radiowaves travelling out of itsgravitational well to decrease infrequency and radiowaves travelling into the gravitational well to increase in frequency, referred to asgravitational redshift / blueshift.
Although some measurable deviations from the values calculated using thegeneral theory of relativity are predicted by some unusual cosmological models, no such deviations were found by this experiment. Previous tests using radiowaves transmitted by theViking andVoyager space probes were in agreement with the calculated values from general relativity to within an accuracy of one part in one thousand. The more refined measurements from theCassini space probe experiment improved this accuracy to about one part in 51,000.[a] The data firmly support Einstein's general theory of relativity.[74]
The possible formation of a newmoon was captured on April 15, 2013.
In total, theCassini mission discovered seven new moons orbiting Saturn.[75] Using images taken byCassini, researchers discoveredMethone,Pallene andPolydeuces in 2004,[76] althoughlater analysis revealed thatVoyager 2 had photographed Pallene in its 1981 flyby of the ringed planet.[77]
On May 1, 2005, a new moon was discovered byCassini in theKeeler gap. It was given the designation S/2005 S 1 before being namedDaphnis. A fifth new moon was discovered byCassini on May 30, 2007, and was provisionally labeled S/2007 S 4. It is now known asAnthe. A press release on February 3, 2009, showed a sixth new moon found byCassini. The moon is approximately 500 m (0.3 mi) in diameter within the G-ring of the ring system of Saturn, and is now namedAegaeon (formerly S/2008 S 1).[78] A press release on November 2, 2009, mentions the seventh new moon found byCassini on July 26, 2009. It is presently labeledS/2009 S 1 and is approximately 300 m (980 ft) in diameter in the B-ring system.[79]
On April 14, 2014, NASA scientists reported the possible beginning of a new moon in Saturn'sA Ring.[80]
Cassini arrival (left) and departure mosaics ofPhoebe (2004)
On June 11, 2004,Cassini flew by the moonPhoebe. This was the first opportunity for close-up studies of this moon (Voyager 2 performed a distant flyby in 1981 but returned no detailed images). It also wasCassini's only possible flyby for Phoebe due to the mechanics of the available orbits around Saturn.[81]
The first close-up images were received on June 12, 2004, and mission scientists immediately realized that the surface of Phoebe looks different from asteroids visited by spacecraft. Parts of the heavily cratered surface look very bright in those pictures, and it is currently believed that a large amount of water ice exists under its immediate surface.
In an announcement on June 28, 2004,Cassini program scientists described the measurement of the rotational period of Saturn.[82] Because there are no fixed features on the surface that can be used to obtain this period, the repetition of radio emissions was used. This new data agreed with the latest values measured from Earth, and constituted a puzzle to the scientists. It turns out that the radio rotational period had changed since it was first measured in 1980 byVoyager 1, and it was now 6 minutes longer. This, however, does not indicate a change in the overall spin of the planet. It is thought to be due to variations in the upper atmosphere and ionosphere at the latitudes which are magnetically connected to the radio source region.[83]
In 2019 NASA announced Saturn's rotational period as 10 hours, 33 minutes, 38 seconds, calculated using Saturnian ring seismology. Vibrations from Saturn's interior cause oscillations in its gravitational field. This energy is absorbed by ring particles in specific locations, where it accumulates until it is released in a wave.[84] Scientists used data from more than 20 of these waves to construct a family of models of Saturn's interior, providing basis for calculating its rotational period.[85]
Saturn reached equinox in 2008, shortly after the end of the prime mission.
On July 1, 2004, the spacecraft flew through the gap between theF and G rings and achievedorbit, after a seven-year voyage.[86] It was the first spacecraft to orbit Saturn.
The Saturn Orbital Insertion (SOI) maneuver performed byCassini was complex, requiring the craft to orient its High-Gain Antenna away from Earth and along its flight path, to shield its instruments from particles in Saturn's rings. Once the craft crossed the ring plane, it had to rotate again to point its engine along its flight path, and then the engine fired to decelerate the craft by 622 m/s to allow Saturn to capture it.[87]Cassini was captured by Saturn's gravity at around 8:54 pmPacific Daylight Time on June 30, 2004. During the maneuverCassini passed within 20,000 km (12,000 mi) of Saturn's cloud tops.
When Cassini was in Saturnian orbit, departure from the Saturn system was evaluated in 2008 during end of mission planning.[88][clarification needed]
Cassini had its first flyby ofSaturn's largest moon,Titan, on July 2, 2004, a day after orbit insertion, when it approached to within 339,000 km (211,000 mi) of Titan. Images taken through special filters (able to see through the moon's global haze) showed south polar clouds thought to be composed ofmethane and surface features with widely differing brightness. On October 27, 2004, the spacecraft executed the first of the 45 planned close flybys of Titan when it passed a mere 1,200 km (750 mi) above the moon. Almost fourgigabits of data were collected and transmitted to Earth, including the first radar images of the moon's haze-enshrouded surface. It revealed the surface of Titan (at least the area covered by radar) to be relatively level, with topography reaching no more than about 50 m (160 ft) in altitude. The flyby provided a remarkable increase in imaging resolution over previous coverage. Images with up to 100 times better resolution were taken and are typical of resolutions planned for subsequent Titan flybys. Cassini collected pictures of Titan and the lakes of methane were similar to the lakes of water on Earth.
Cassini released theHuygens probe on December 25, 2004, by means of a spring and spiral rails intended to rotate the probe for greater stability. It entered the atmosphere of Titan on January 14, 2005, and after a two-and-a-half-hour descent landed on solid ground.[6] AlthoughCassini successfully relayed 350 of the pictures that it received fromHuygens of its descent and landing site, a malfunction in one of the communications channels resulted in the loss of a further 350 pictures.[89]
View of Enceladus'sEuropa-like surface with theLabtayt Sulci fractures at center and the Ebony (left) and Cufa dorsa at lower left; imaged byCassini on February 17, 2005
During the first two close flybys of the moonEnceladus in 2005,Cassini discovered a deflection in the local magnetic field that is characteristic for the existence of a thin but significant atmosphere. Other measurements obtained at that time point to ionized water vapor as its main constituent.Cassini also observed water ice geysers erupting from the south pole of Enceladus, which gives more credibility to the idea that Enceladus is supplying the particles of Saturn's E ring. Mission scientists began to suspect that there may be pockets of liquid water near the surface of the moon that fuel the eruptions.[90]
On March 12, 2008,Cassini made a close fly-by of Enceladus, passing within 50 km of the moon's surface.[91] The spacecraft passed through the plumes extending from its southern geysers, detecting water, carbon dioxide and various hydrocarbons with its mass spectrometer, while also mapping surface features that are at much higher temperature than their surroundings with the infrared spectrometer.[92]Cassini was unable to collect data with its cosmic dust analyzer due to an unknown software malfunction.
On November 21, 2009,Cassini made its eighth flyby of Enceladus,[93] this time with a different geometry, approaching within 1,600 km (990 mi) of the surface. The Composite Infrared Spectrograph (CIRS) instrument produced a map of thermal emissions from theBaghdad Sulcus 'tiger stripe'. The data returned helped create a detailed and high resolution mosaic image of the southern part of the moon's Saturn-facing hemisphere.
On April 3, 2014, nearly ten years afterCassini entered Saturn's orbit, NASA reported evidence of a large salty internal ocean of liquid water in Enceladus. The presence of an internal salty ocean in contact with the moon's rocky core, places Enceladus "among the most likely places in the Solar System to hostalien microbial life".[94][95][96] On June 30, 2014, NASA celebrated ten years ofCassini exploring Saturn andits moons, highlighting the discovery of water activity on Enceladus among other findings.[97]
In September 2015, NASA announced that gravitational and imaging data fromCassini were used to analyze thelibrations of Enceladus' orbit and determined that the moon's surface is not rigidly joined to its core, concluding that the underground ocean must therefore be global in extent.[98]
On October 28, 2015,Cassini performed a close flyby of Enceladus, coming within 49 km (30 mi) of the surface, and passing through theicy plume above the south pole.[99]
On December 14, 2023, astronomers reported the first time discovery, in theplumes of Enceladus, ofhydrogen cyanide, a possible chemical essential forlife as we know it, as well as otherorganic molecules, some of which are yet to be better identified and understood. According to the researchers, "these [newly discovered] compounds could potentially support extantmicrobial communities or drive complexorganic synthesis leading to theorigin of life".[100][101]
In May 2005,Cassini began a series ofradio occultation experiments, to measure the size-distribution of particles inSaturn's rings, and measure the atmosphere of Saturn itself. For over four months, the craft completed orbits designed for this purpose. During these experiments, it flew behind the ring plane of Saturn, as seen from Earth, and transmitted radio waves through the particles. The radio signals received on Earth were analyzed, for frequency, phase, and power shift of the signal to determine the structure of the rings.
Upper image: visible color mosaic of Saturn's rings taken on December 12, 2004. Lower image: simulated view constructed from aradio occultation observation on May 3, 2005. Color in the lower image represents ring particle sizes.
In images captured September 5, 2005,Cassini detected spokes in Saturn's rings,[102] previously seen only by the visual observer Stephen James O'Meara in 1977 and then confirmed by theVoyager space probes in the early 1980s.[103][104]
Radar images obtained on July 21, 2006, appear to show lakes ofliquid hydrocarbon (such asmethane andethane) in Titan's northern latitudes. This is the first discovery of currently existing lakes anywhere besides on Earth. The lakes range in size from one to one-hundred kilometers across.[90]
On March 13, 2007, theJet Propulsion Laboratory announced that it had found strong evidence of seas of methane and ethane in the northern hemisphere of Titan. At least one of these is larger than any of theGreat Lakes in North America.[105]
In November 2006, scientists discovered a storm at the south pole of Saturn with a distincteyewall. This is characteristic of ahurricane on Earth and had never been seen on another planet before. Unlike aterrestrial hurricane, the storm appears to be stationary at the pole. The storm is 8,000 km (5,000 mi) across, and 70 km (43 mi) high, with winds blowing at 560 km/h (350 mph).[106]
Taken on September 10, 2007, at a distance of 62,331 km (38,731 mi) Iapetus's equatorial ridge and surface are revealed. (CL1 and CL2 filters)Closeup of Iapetus surface, 2007
On September 10, 2007,Cassini completed its flyby of the strange, two-toned, walnut-shaped moon,Iapetus. Images were taken from 1,600 km (1,000 mi) above the surface. As it was sending the images back to Earth, it was hit by acosmic ray that forced it to temporarily entersafe mode. All of the data from the flyby were recovered.[107]
On April 15, 2008,Cassini received funding for a 27-month extended mission. It consisted of 60 more orbits ofSaturn, with 21 more close Titan flybys, seven of Enceladus, six of Mimas, eight of Tethys, and one targeted flyby each ofDione,Rhea, andHelene.[108] The extended mission began on July 1, 2008, and was renamed theCassini Equinox Mission as the mission coincided with Saturn'sequinox.[109]
A proposal was submitted to NASA for a second mission extension (September 2010 – May 2017), provisionally named the extended-extended mission or XXM.[110] This ($60M pa) was approved in February 2010 and renamed theCassini Solstice Mission.[111] It includedCassini orbiting Saturn 155 more times, conducting 54 additional flybys ofTitan and 11 more of Enceladus.
On October 25, 2012,Cassini witnessed the aftermath of the massiveGreat White Spot storm that recurs roughly every 30 years on Saturn.[112] Data from the composite infrared spectrometer (CIRS) instrument indicated a powerful discharge from the storm that caused a temperature spike in the stratosphere of Saturn 83 K (83 °C; 149 °F) above normal. Simultaneously, a huge increase inethylene gas was detected by NASA researchers at Goddard Research Center in Greenbelt, Maryland. Ethylene is a colorless gas that is highly uncommon on Saturn and is produced both naturally and through man-made sources on Earth. The storm that produced this discharge was first observed by the spacecraft on December 5, 2010, in Saturn's northern hemisphere. The storm is the first of its kind to be observed by a spacecraft in orbit around Saturn as well as the first to be observed at thermal infrared wavelengths, allowing scientists to observe the temperature of Saturn's atmosphere and track phenomena that are invisible to the naked eye. The spike of ethylene gas that was produced by the storm reached levels that were 100 times more than those thought possible for Saturn. Scientists have also determined that the storm witnessed was the largest, hottest stratospheric vortex ever detected in the Solar System, initially being larger than Jupiter'sGreat Red Spot.
On December 21, 2012,Cassini observed atransit of Venus across the Sun. The VIMS instrument analyzed sunlight passing through the Venusian atmosphere. VIMS previously observed the transit of exoplanetHD 189733 b.[113]
The Day the Earth Smiled –Saturn with some of its moons,Earth,Venus, andMars as visible in thisCassini montage (July 19, 2013)[114]
On July 19, 2013, the probe was pointed towards Earth to capture an image of the Earth and theMoon, as part of a natural light, multi-image portrait of the entire Saturn system. The event was unique as it was the first time NASA informed the public that a long-distance photo was being taken in advance.[114][115] The imaging team said they wanted people to smile and wave to the skies, withCassini scientistCarolyn Porco describing the moment as a chance to "celebrate life on thePale Blue Dot".[116]
On February 10, 2015, theCassini spacecraft visitedRhea more closely, coming within 47,000 km (29,000 mi).[117] The spacecraft observed the moon with its cameras producing some of the highest resolution color images yet of Rhea.[118]
Cassini performed its last flyby of Saturn's moonDione on August 17, 2015, at a distance of about 475 km (295 mi). A previous flyby was performed on June 16.[120]
Between 2012 and 2016, the persistent hexagonal cloud pattern at Saturn's north pole changed from a mostly blue color to more of a golden color.[121] One theory for this is a seasonal change: extended exposure to sunlight may be creating haze as the pole swivels toward the Sun.[121] It was previously noted that there was less blue color overall on Saturn between 2004 and 2008.[122]
Cassini's end involved a series of close Saturn passes, approaching within therings, then an entry into Saturn's atmosphere on September 15, 2017, to destroy the spacecraft.[6][12][88] This method was chosen to ensureprotection and prevent biological contamination to any of the moons of Saturn thought to offer potentialhabitability.[123]
In 2008 a number of options were evaluated to achieve this goal, each with varying funding, scientific, and technical challenges. A short period Saturn impact for an end of mission was rated "excellent" with the reasons "D-ring option satisfies unachieved AO goals;[definition needed] cheap and easily achievable" while collision with an icy moon was rated "good" for being "cheap and achievable anywhere/time".[88]
There were problems in 2013–14 about NASA receiving U.S. government funding for the Grand Finale. The two phases of the Grand Finale ended up being the equivalent of having two separateDiscovery-class missions in that the Grand Finale was completely different from the mainCassini regular mission. The U.S. government in late 2014 approved the Grand Finale at the cost of $200 million. This was far cheaper than building two new probes in separateDiscovery-class missions.[124]
On November 29, 2016, the spacecraft performed a Titan flyby that took it to the gateway of F-ring orbits: This was the start of the Grand Finale phase culminating in its impact with the planet.[125][126] A final Titan flyby on April 22, 2017, changed the orbit again to fly through the gap between Saturn and its inner ring days later on April 26.Cassini passed about 3,100 km (1,900 mi) above Saturn's cloud layer and 320 km (200 mi) from the visible edge of the inner ring; it successfully took images of Saturn's atmosphere and began returning data the next day.[127] After a further 22 orbits through the gap, the mission was ended with a dive into Saturn's atmosphere on September 15; signal was lost at 11:55:46 UTC on September 15, 2017, just 30 seconds later than predicted. It is estimated that the spacecraft burned up about 45 seconds after the last transmission.
In December 2018, Netflix aired "NASA's Cassini Mission" on their series7 Days Out documenting the final days of work on theCassini mission before the spacecraft crashed into Saturn to complete its Grand Finale.
In January 2019, new research using data collected duringCassini's Grand Finale phase was published:
The final close passes by the rings and planet enabled scientists to measure the length of a day on Saturn: 10 hours, 33 minutes and 38 seconds.
Saturn's rings are relatively new, 10 to 100 million years old.[16]
Cassini orbiting Saturn before Grand Finale (artist concepts)
Cassini impact site onSaturn (visual/IR mapping spectrometer; September 15, 2017)
A close-up image of Saturn's atmosphere from about 3,100 km (1,900 mi) above the cloud layer, taken byCassini on its first dive on April 26, 2017, at the start of the Grand Finale
Last image (color) taken byCassini as it descended toward Saturn. The image was taken 634,000 km (394,000 mi) above Saturn on September 14, 2017, at 19:59 UTC.[129]
Last image (b&w) taken by the imaging cameras on theCassini spacecraft (September 14, 2017, at 19:59 UTC)
The spacecraft operation was organized around a series of missions.[17] Each is structured according to a certain amount of funding, goals, etc.[17] At least 260 scientists from 17 countries have worked on theCassini–Huygens mission; in addition thousands of people overall worked to design, manufacture, and launch the mission.[130]
Prime Mission, July 2004 through June 2008.[131][132]
Cassini Equinox Mission was a two-year mission extension which ran from July 2008 through September 2010.[17]
Cassini Solstice Mission ran from October 2010 through April 2017.[17][133] (Also known as the XXM mission.)[122]
Grand Finale (spacecraft directed into Saturn), April 2017 to September 15, 2017.[133]
^This is currently the best measurement ofpost-Newtonian parameterγ; the resultγ = 1 + (2.1 ± 2.3) × 10−5 agrees with the prediction of standard General Relativity,γ = 1
^F. M. Reininger; M. Dami; R. Paolinetti; et al. (June 1994). D. L. Crawford; E. R. Craine (eds.). "Visible Infrared Mapping Spectrometer--visible channel (VIMS-V)".SPIE Proceedings Instrumentation in Astronomy VIII.2198:239–250.Bibcode:1994SPIE.2198..239R.doi:10.1117/12.176753.S2CID128716661.
^W. H. Ip; D. Gautier; T. Owen (April 13–17, 2004).The Genesis of Cassini-Huygens. Titan - from Discovery to Encounter: International Conference on the Occasion of the 375th birthday of Christiaan Huygens. ESTEC, Noordwijk, the Netherlands. p. 218.Bibcode:2004ESASP1278..211I.
^abJ. Grandidier; J. B. Gilbert; G. A. Carr (2017).Cassini Power Subsystem(PDF). Nuclear & Emerging Technologies for Space (NETS) 2017. Orlando, Florida, USA:NASA /JPL.
^C. C. Porco; R. A. West; S. Squyres; A. McEwen; P. Thomas; et al. (2004). "Cassini Imaging Science: Instrument Characteristics and Anticipated Scientific Investigations at Saturn".Space Science Reviews.115 (1–4):363–497.Bibcode:2004SSRv..115..363P.doi:10.1007/s11214-004-1456-7.S2CID122119953.
^S. M. Krimigis; D. G. Mitchell; D. C. Hamilton; S. Livi; J. Dandouras; et al. (2004). "Magnetosphere Imaging Instrument (MIMI) on the Cassini Mission to Saturn/Titan".Space Science Reviews.114 (1–4):233–329.Bibcode:2004SSRv..114..233K.doi:10.1007/s11214-004-1410-8.S2CID108288660.
^L. W. Esposito; C. A. Barth; J. E. Colwell; G. M. Lawrence; W. E. McClintock; et al. (2004). "The Cassini Ultraviolet Imaging Spectrograph Investigation".Space Science Reviews.115 (1–4):299–361.doi:10.1007/s11214-004-1455-8.
^Victoria P. Friedensen (1999)."Chapter 3".Protest Space: A Study of Technology Choice, Perception of Risk, and Space Exploration (Master of Science thesis).hdl:10919/36022.Archived(PDF) from the original on March 6, 2002. RetrievedFebruary 28, 2011.
Meltzer, Michael (2015).The Cassini-Huygens Visit to Saturn: A Historic Mission to the Ringed Planet. Cham: Springer International Publishing Switzerland.ISBN978-3-319-07608-9.
Missions are ordered by launch date. Sign† indicates failure en route or before intended mission data returned.‡ indicates use of the planet as agravity assist en route to another destination.
Missions are ordered by launch date.† indicates failure en route or before any data returned.‡ indicates use of the planet as agravity assist en route to another destination.
.jpg)
.jpg)
