| Caspian tiger | |
|---|---|
 | |
| Stuffed specimen in theState Darwin Museum,Moscow | |
Extinct (1970) | |
Scientific classification | |
| Domain: | Eukaryota |
| Kingdom: | Animalia |
| Phylum: | Chordata |
| Class: | Mammalia |
| Order: | Carnivora |
| Suborder: | Feliformia |
| Family: | Felidae |
| Subfamily: | Pantherinae |
| Genus: | Panthera |
| Species: | P. tigris |
| Subspecies: | P. t. tigris |
| Population: | †Caspian tiger |
 | |
| Historical distribution | |
TheCaspian tiger was aPanthera tigris tigris population native to easternTurkey, northernIran,Mesopotamia, theCaucasus around theCaspian Sea,Central Asia to northernAfghanistan and theXinjiang region in westernChina.[1] Until theMiddle Ages, it was also present in southernRussia.[2] It inhabited sparse forests andriverine corridors in this region until the 1970s.[3] This population was regarded as a distinct subspecies and assessed as extinct in 2003.[4]
Results of aphylogeographic analysis evinces that the Caspian andSiberian tiger populations shared a common continuous geographic distribution until the early 19th century.[5]
Some Caspian tigers were intermediate in size between Siberian andBengal tigers.[2][6][7]
It was also called Balkhash tiger,Hyrcanian tiger,Turanian tiger,[4] andMazandaran tiger.[8]
Felis virgata was ascientific name used byJohann Karl Wilhelm Illiger in 1815 for the greyish tiger in the area surrounding the Caspian Sea.[9]Tigris septentrionalis was the scientific name proposed byKonstantin Satunin in 1904 for a skull and mounted skins of tigers that were killed in theLankaran Lowland in the 1860s.[10]Felis tigris lecoqi andFelis tigris trabata were proposed byErnst Schwarz in 1916 for tiger skins and skulls fromLop Nur andIli River areas, respectively.[11]
In 1929,Reginald Innes Pocock subordinated the tiger to thegenusPanthera.[12] For several decades, the Caspian tiger was considered a distinct tigersubspecies.[6][13]
In 1999, thevalidity of several tiger subspecies was questioned. Most putative subspecies described in the 19th and 20th centuries were distinguished on basis of fur length and colouration, striping patterns and body size, hence characteristics that vary widely within populations.Morphologically, tigers from different regions vary little, andgene flow between populations in those regions is considered to have been possible during thePleistocene. Therefore, it was proposed to recognize only two tiger subspecies as valid, namelyP. t. tigris in mainland Asia, andP. t. sondaica in theGreater Sunda Islands and possibly inSundaland.[14]
At the start of the 21st century,genetic studies were carried out using 20 tiger bone and tissue samples from museum collections andsequencing at least one segment of fivemitochondrial genes. Results revealed a low amount of variability in the mitochondrial DNA in Caspian tigers; and that Caspian and Siberian tigers were remarkably similar, indicating that the Siberian tiger is the genetically closest living relative of the Caspian tiger.Phylogeographic analysis indicates that thecommon ancestor of Caspian and Siberian tigers colonizedCentral Asia via theGansu−Silk Road region from eastern China less than 10,000 years ago, and subsequently traversed eastward to establish the Siberian tiger population in theRussian Far East. The Caspian and Siberian tigers were likely a single contiguous population until the early 19th century, but became isolated from another due to fragmentation and loss of habitat during theIndustrial Revolution.[5]
In 2015, morphological, ecological and molecular traits of all putative tiger subspecies were analysed in a combined approach. Results support distinction of the two evolutionary groups continental and Sunda tigers. The authors proposed recognition of only two subspecies, namelyP. t. tigris comprising the Bengal, Malayan, Indochinese, South Chinese, Siberian and Caspian tiger populations, andP. t. sondaica comprising theJavan,Bali andSumatran tiger populations. Tigers in mainland Asia fall into twoclades, namely a northern clade formed by the Caspian and Siberian tiger populations, and a southern clade formed by populations in remaining mainland Asia.[15]
In 2017, the Cat Specialist Group revised felidtaxonomy and now recognizes the tiger populations in continentalAsia asP. t. tigris.[1]However, a genetic study published in 2018 supported sixmonophyleticclades, with the Amur and Caspian tigers being distinct from other mainland Asian populations, thus supporting the traditional concept of six living subspecies.[16]
Photographs of skins of Caspian andSiberian tigers indicate that the main background colour of the Caspian tiger's fur varied and was generally brighter and more uniform than that of the Siberian tiger. The stripes were narrower, fuller and more closely set than those of tigers fromManchuria. The colour of its stripes was a mixture of brown or cinnamon shades. Pure black patterns were invariably found only on head, neck, the middle of the back and at the tip of the tail. Angular patterns at the base of the tail were less developed than those of Far Eastern populations. The contrast between the summer and winter coats was sharp, though not to the same extent as in Far Eastern populations. The winter coat was paler, with less distinct patterns. The summer coat had a similar density and hair length to that of the Bengal tiger, though its stripes were usually narrower, longer and closer set. It had the thickest fur amongst tigers, possibly due its occurrence in the temperate parts ofAsia.[2][6][7]
Male Caspian tigers had a body length of 270–295 cm (106–116 in) and weighed 170–240 kg (370–530 lb); females measured 240–260 cm (94–102 in) in head-to-body and weighed 85–135 kg (187–298 lb).[6] Maximum skull length in males was 297–365.8 mm (11.69–14.40 in), while that of females was 195.7–255.5 mm (7.70–10.06 in).[2] Itsocciput was broader than of the Bengal tiger.[14]It ranked among the largest extantcat species, along with the Siberian tiger.[6][2][17]
Some individuals attained exceptional sizes. In 1954, a tiger was killed near theSumbar River inKopet-Dag, whose stuffed skin was put on display in amuseum inAshgabat. Its head-to-body length was 2.25 m (7.4 ft). Its skull had a condylobasal length of about 305 mm (12.0 in), andzygomatic width of 205 mm (8.1 in). Its skull length was 385 mm (15.2 in), hence more than the known maximum of 365.8 mm (14.40 in) for this population, and slightly exceeding skull length of most Siberian tigers.[2]InPrishibinske, a tiger was killed in February 1899. Measurements after skinning revealed a body length of 270 cm (8.9 ft) between the pegs, plus a 90 cm (3.0 ft) long tail, giving it a total length of about 360 cm (11.8 ft). Measurements between the pegs of up to 2.95 m (9.7 ft) are known.[6] It was said to have been "a tiger of immense proportions" and "no smaller than the local horse breeds." It had rather long fur.[2]
Skull size and shape of Caspian tigers significantly overlap with and are almost indistinguishable from other tiger specimens in mainland Asia.[18]
In the 19th century, tigers occurred in:
Its former distribution can be approximated by examining the distribution ofungulates in the region.[25]Wild boar was the numerically dominant ungulate in forested habitats, along watercourses, inreed beds and in thickets of the Caspian and Aral Seas. Where watercourses penetrated deep into desert areas, suitable wild pig and tiger habitat was often linear, only a few kilometers wide at most.Red androe deer occurred in forests around theBlack Sea to the western side and around the southern side of the Caspian Sea in a narrow belt of forest cover. Roe deer occurred in forested areas south of Lake Balkhash.Bactrian deer lived in the narrow belt of forest habitat on the southern border of the Aral Sea, and southward along the Syr-Darya and Amu Darya rivers.[2]
Throughout thelate Pleistocene andHolocene, the Caspian tiger population was likely connected to theBengal tiger population through corridors below elevations of 4,000 m (13,000 ft) in theHindu Kush, beforegene flow was interrupted by humans.[26]
The demise of the Caspian tiger began with theRussian colonisation of Turkestan during the late 19th century.[27]Its extirpation was caused by several factors:
Until the early 20th century, the regularRussian army was used to clearpredators from forests, around settlements, and potential agricultural lands. UntilWorld War I, about 50 tigers were killed in the forests of Amu Darya andPiandj Rivers each year. High incentives were paid for tiger skins up to 1929. Wild pigs and deer, the prey base of tigers, were decimated by deforestation and subsistence hunting by the increasing human population along the rivers, supported by growing agricultural developments.[28] By 1910, cotton plants were estimated to occupy nearly one-fifth of Turkestan'sarable land, with about one half located in theFergana Valley.[29]
In Iraq, a tiger was killed nearMosul in 1887.[3][19]InGeorgia, the last known tiger was killed in 1922 nearTbilisi, after taking domestic livestock.[30][3]In China, tigers disappeared from theTarim River basin inXinjiang in the 1920s.[30][3]InAzerbaijan, the last known tiger was killed in 1932; however, tigers were allegedly sighted in later years in theTalysh Mountains.[31]
In Turkey, a pair of tigers was allegedly killed in the area ofSelçuk in 1943.[32] Several tiger skins found in the early 1970s nearUludere indicated the presence of a tiger population in eastern Turkey.[33][34] Questionnaire surveys conducted in this region revealed that one to eight tigers were killed each year until the mid-1980s, and that tigers likely had survived in the region until the early 1990s. Due to lack of interest, in addition to security and safety reasons, no further field surveys were carried out in the area.[20]
InIran, one of the last known tigers was shot inGolestan National Park in 1953. Another individual was sighted inGolestān Province in 1958.[7]InTurkmenistan, the last known tiger was killed in January 1954 in theSumbar River valley in theKopet-Dag Range.[35]It reportedly disappeared in theManasi River basin in theTian Shan Range west ofÜrümqi in the 1960s.[2] The last record from the lower reaches of the Amu Darya river was an unconfirmed observation in 1968 nearNukus in the Aral Sea area. By the early 1970s, tigers disappeared from the river's lower reaches and the Pyzandh Valley in the Turkmen-Uzbek-Afghan border region.[2]ThePiandj River area between Afghanistan and Tajikistan was a stronghold of the Caspian tiger until the late 1960s. The latest sighting of a tiger in the Afghan-Tajik border area dates to 1998 in theBabatag Range.[28] Two tigers were captured in April 1997 in Afghanistan'sLaghman Province.[36]
InKazakhstan, the last Caspian tiger was recorded in 1948, in the environs of theIli River, the last known stronghold in the region ofLake Balkhash.[2] In May 2006, a Kazakh hunter claimed to have seen a female Caspian tiger with cubs near Lake Balkhash. However, this sighting remains uncertain and unconfirmed.[37]
No information is available for home ranges of Caspian tigers. In search for prey, they possibly prowled widely and followedmigratoryungulates from one pasture to another.Wild pigs andcervids probably formed their main prey base. In many regions of Central Asia,Bactrian deer androe deer were important prey species, as well asCaspian red deer andgoitered gazelle in Iran;Eurasian golden jackals,jungle cats,locusts, and other small mammals in the lower Amu Darya River area;saigas,wild horses andPersian onagers in theMiankaleh Peninsula;Turkmenian kulans,Mongolian wild asses, andmountain sheep in the Zhana-Darya and around the Aral Sea; andManchurian wapiti andmoose in the area ofLake Baikal. They caught fish in flooded areas and irrigation channels. In winter, they frequently attacked dogs and livestock straying away from herds. They preferred drinking water from rivers, and drank from lakes in seasons when water was less brackish.[2]
Two tigers in southwesternTajikistan harbored 5–7 tapeworms (Taenia bubesei) in theirsmall andlarge intestines.[2]
In 1938,Tigrovaya Balka was the first protected area inTajikistan established in the lower reaches ofVakhsh River between thePanj andKofarnihon Rivers; it was apparently the last refuge of the Caspian tiger. A tiger was seen there in 1958.[39]After 1947, tigers were legally protected in theUnion of Soviet Socialist Republics.[28]
In Iran, Caspian tigers had been protected since 1957, with heavy fines for shooting. In the early 1970s, biologists from theDepartment of Environment searched several years for Caspian tigers in the uninhabited areas of Caspian forests, but did not find any evidence of their presence.[7]
A tiger from the Caucasus was housed atBerlin Zoo in the late 19th century.[3] A tigress caught inTurkestan was presented toLondon Zoo on 12 December 1885.[40] DNA from a tiger caught in northern Iran and housed atMoscow Zoo in the 20th century was used in the genetic test that established the Caspian tiger's close genetic relationship with the Siberian tiger.[5] This tigress lived from 1924 to 1942 and was presented to the Soviet ambassador in Iran.[3] Another tigress kept atTierpark Hagenbeck in Hamburg between 1955 and 1960 was probably the last Caspian tiger in captivity.[41] An individual was born inBrookfield Zoo Chicago on 7 May 1935 and was still living on 1 January 1948.[42]
Stimulated by recent findings that the Siberian tiger is the closest relative of the Caspian tiger, discussions started as to whether the Siberian tiger could be appropriate forreintroduction into a safe place in Central Asia, where the Caspian tiger once roamed.[43] The Amu Darya delta was suggested as a potential site for such a project. A feasibility study was initiated to investigate if the area is suitable, and if such an initiative would receive support from relevant decision makers. A viable tiger population of about 100 animals would require at least 5,000 km2 (1,900 sq mi) of large tracts of contiguous habitat, with rich prey populations. Such habitat is not currently available, and cannot be provided in the short term. The proposed region is therefore unsuitable for the reintroduction, at least at the current stage.[28]
While the restoration of the Caspian tiger has stimulated discussions, the locations for the tiger have yet to become fully involved in the planning. But through preliminary ecological surveys it has been revealed that some small populated areas of Central Asia have preserved natural habitat suitable for tigers.[44]
In theRoman Empire, tigers and other large animals imported from Africa and Asia were used duringgladiatorial games.[45]In theTaurus Mountains, stone traps were used to captureleopards and tigers.[46]
Inthe Fables of Pilpay, the tiger is described as furious and avid to rule over wilderness.[47]
Thebabr (Persian:ببر, tiger) features in Persian and Central Asian culture. The name "Babr Mazandaran" is sometimes given to a prominentwrestler.[8] A Syrian mosaic inPalmyra depicts theSassanids as tigers, possibly commemorating the victory of the Palmyrene KingOdaenathus overShapur I. The inscription on the mosaic conceals an earlier one that read: (Mrn), which is a title used by Odaenathus.[48] It possibly celebrates Odaenathus' victory over the Persians, the archer representing Odaenathus and the tigers the Persians; Odaenathus is about to be crowned with victory by the eagle flying above him.[49]
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