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TheCaroline Divines were influential theologians and writers in theChurch of England who lived during the reigns ofKing Charles I and, after theStuart Restoration,King Charles II (Latin:Carolus). There is no official list of Caroline-era divines; they are defined by the era in which they lived, and Caroline Divines hailed from England, Ireland, Scotland, and Wales.[1] However, of these four nations, it is Caroline England which is most commonly considered to have fostered a golden age of Anglican scholarship and devotional writing, despite the socio-cultural upset of civil war, regicide, and military rule underOliver Cromwell. Importantly, the termdivine is restricted neither to canonisedsaints nor to Anglican figures, but is used of many writers and thinkers in the wider Christian church.
The corpus produced by the Caroline divines is diverse. What they have in common is a commitment to the faith as conveyed by Scripture and theBook of Common Prayer, thus regarding prayer and theology in a manner akin to that of theApostolic Fathers and other later Christian writers.[2] On the whole, the Caroline Divines view thevia media of Anglicanism not as a compromise but "a positive position, witnessing to the universality of God and God's kingdom working through the fallible, earthlyecclesia Anglicana."[3] These theologians regarded Scripture as authoritative in matters concerning salvation, although they drew upon tradition and reason as well, the latter in the form of deductive logic and the former with special reference to theChurch Fathers. Politically, the Caroline Divines wereroyalists but primarily of a constitutional, rather than absolutist, bent.
Their promotion of more elaborate ceremonial and their valuation of visual beauty in art and church architecture was variously labelled as "popish", "Romish", "Lutheran", or “Arminian” by theirPuritan opponents. Such embellishments, however, were not only integral to their spirituality, but were seen by the Carolines as combatting the appeal of Roman Catholicism. And, contrary to Puritan accusation, the emphasis upon beauty had nothing to do with "Arminian" influence.[4] Rather than face a choice between an austere Puritanism or an elaborate Roman ceremonial, the Caroline divines presented their countrymen with avia media in which they could remain within the established church and also participate in ancient forms of religion.[5]
Within the Anglican tradition, there have been certain theological writers whose works have been considered standards for faith, doctrine, worship, and spirituality. These are often commemorated inlesser feasts of the Church, and their works are frequentlyanthologised.[6] Among the Caroline divines of the seventeenth century, the following are prominent.
King Charles I (19 November 1600 – 30 January 1649) encouraged liturgical renewal and the publication of devotional writings during his reign. The most popular devotional work in seventeenth-century England was the king's own autobiographicalEikon Basilike (Ancient Greek:Εἰκὼν Βασιλική,romanized: Eikṑn Basilikḗ,lit. 'Royal Portrait'), which was translated into numerous European languages.[7] He defended popular recreational activities through his re-publication of the Book of Sports in 1633, which was originally promulgated by his father,King James VI, in 1617. Charles I also stood against the advance of extremepredestinarian theology in the Church of England, principally through his Declaration on the Articles of Religion (1628). When theBook of Common Prayer was revised in 1662, this declaration was permanently affixed as the preface to theArticles of Religion.[8] Like both his predecessors and successors, Charles I was said to have theRoyal touch, which he practised during his lifetime, and miracle stories were attributed to the king's relics after his death.[9] Charles I was canonised by theChurch of England as King Charles the Martyr, the first Anglican saint, and placed as such in the 1662Calendar of Saints. However 30 January, the date of his martyrdom, was not denoted as a feast, but as a fast intended for annual reflection and repentance.
Lancelot Andrewes (1555 – 25 September 1626) was an English priest and scholar, who held high positions in theChurch of England during the reigns ofQueen Elizabeth I andKing James I. He was the spiritual father of Charles I.[10] During the reign of James I, Andrewes served asBishop of Chichester and oversaw the translation of theAuthorized Version (orKing James Version) of the Bible. In the Church of England he is commemorated on 25 September with aLesser Festival. His most popular work has proven to be hisPreces Privatae(Private Prayers), which was published posthumously and has remained in print since renewed interest in Andrewes developed in the 19th century. HisNinety-Six Sermons have been occasionally reprinted and are considered among the most rhetorically developed and polished sermons of the late-sixteenth and early-seventeenth centuries. Because of these, Andrewes has been commemorated by literary greats such asT. S. Eliot.
John Cosin (30 November 1594 – 15 January 1672) was an English priest, bishop and theologian. Cosin was electedMaster ofPeterhouse, Cambridge in 1634, succeedingMatthew Wren, and decorated the chapel there according toHigh Church principles.[11] Among his writings (most of which were published posthumously) are aHistoria Transubstantiationis Papalis (1675),Notes and Collections on the Book of Common Prayer (1710) andA Scholastical History of the Canon of Holy Scripture (1657). A collected edition of his works, forming 5 vols of the Oxford-basedLibrary of Anglo-Catholic Theology, was published between 1843 and 1855; and hisCorrespondence (2 vols) was edited byGeorge Ornsby for the Surtees Society (1868–1870). Cosin's most important work was hisCollection of Private Devotions which was published in 1627 at the behest of King Charles I. It made use of patristic sources, Elizabethan devotional material, and Cosin's own compositions. This was the first work of royally-authorised devotional writing since the reign of Elizabeth I and was immensely popular in the seventeenth century. Cosin was exiled in Paris during the Commonwealth, but was madeBishop of Durham at theRestoration in 1660, a post he held until his death.[12]
Thomas Ken (July 1637 – 19 March 1711), English priest, was the most eminent of the Englishnon-juring bishops, and one of the fathers of modern Englishhymnology. HisThree Hymns (1700) contains the original version of the hymn 'Praise God from whom all blessings flow', which continues to be sung during offertories around the world, especially in Anglican churches.[13] Ken later left the Church of England during theNonjuring schism, which developed in response to the invasion of England by the Dutch prince William III. However, as a Nonjuror, Ken remained deeply tied to the Anglican tradition. Nonjurors did not abandon Anglicanism but instead maintained allegiance to the exiled kingJames II of England. The political counterpart to the Nonjuror schism wasJacobitism. Both ended in the latter half of the eighteenth century with the death ofCharles Edward Stuart, the last Stuart claimant to the throne. Nonjuror liturgical, theological, and devotional writing proved to have a considerable impact upon the Anglican tradition, in part due to the influence of the nineteenth-centuryOxford Movement.
ArchbishopWilliam Laud (7 October 1573 – 10 January 1645) wasArchbishop of Canterbury and a fervent supporter of King Charles I of England. Laud was a sincere Anglican and loyal Englishman, who must have been frustrated at the charges ofPopery levelled against him by thePuritan element in the Church. Laud's aggressive high church policy was seen by many as a sinister development. He was blamed for the introduction of the 1637Book of Common Prayer into Scotland, although a similar policy had originated with King James I. Laud'sConference with Fisher the Jesuite is a classic work of Anglican apologetics and has been called 'one of the last great works of scholastic divinity.'[14] Like Andrewes, Laud'sPrivate Devotions were printed posthumously, although they have never been as popular as those by Andrewes.
His views towards the Presbyterians extended toScotland, where it led to theCovenanter movement and theBishops' Wars. TheLong Parliament of 1640 accused him oftreason, resulting in his imprisonment in theTower of London. In the spring of 1644, he was brought to trial, which ended without being able to reach a verdict. Parliament took up the issue, and eventually he was beheaded on 10 January 1645 onTower Hill, notwithstanding being granted a royal pardon.
Thomas Sprat (1635 – 20 May 1713), was an English priest. Having takenorders he became aprebendary ofLincoln Cathedral in 1660. In the preceding year he had gained a reputation by his poemTo the Happie Memory of the most Renowned Prince Oliver, Lord Protector (London, 1659), and he was afterwards well known as a wit, preacher, and man of letters.
His chief prose works are theObservations upon Monsieur de Sorbier's Voyage into England (London, 1665), a satirical reply to the strictures on Englishmen inSamuel de Sorbière's book of that name, and aHistory of the Royal Society of London (London, 1667), which Sprat had helped to found. TheHistory of the Royal Society elaborates the scientific purposes of the academy and outlines some of the strictures of scientific writing that set the modern standards for clarity and conciseness. The work also contains theological defences of scientific study.
Jeremy Taylor (1613 – 13 August 1667) was a priest in theChurch of England who achieved fame as an author duringthe Protectorate ofOliver Cromwell. He is sometimes known as the "Shakespeare of Divines" for his poetic style of writing.
Taylor was educated atthe Perse School, Cambridge before going ontoGonville and Caius College, atCambridge, where he graduated in 1626. He was under the patronage ofWilliam Laud,Archbishop of Canterbury. He went on to become chaplain in ordinary to Charles I as a result of Laud's sponsorship. This made him politically suspect when Laud was tried for treason and executed in 1645 by thePuritan Parliament during theEnglish Civil War. After the Parliamentary victory over the King, he was briefly imprisoned several times.
Eventually, he was allowed to retire to Wales, where he became the private chaplain of the Earl of Carbery. Upon theRestoration, his political star was on the rise, and he was madeBishop of Down and Connor in Ireland. He was also madevice-chancellor of the University of Dublin.
Herbert Thorndike (1598–1672) was Canon ofWestminster Abbey. He was also an influentialtheologian and writer in theAnglican Church who was well respected during the reigns of King Charles I and, after the Restoration, King Charles II. His work had little influence, however, and it was not until theOxford Movement of the 19th century that he came to be widely read again.[15]
George Herbert (1593–1633) was a Welsh-born priest who served at the rural parish ofFugglestone St Peter nearSalisbury, but is primarily known as a skilled orator and poet. He attendedTrinity College, Cambridge in 1609 with the intention of becoming a priest, but instead he became the university's Public Orator and attracted the attention ofJames I. He served in theParliament of England in 1624 and briefly in 1625. After the death of James I, Herbert renewed his interest in ordination. He gave up his secular ambitions in his mid-thirties and took holy orders in the Church of England, spending the rest of his life as rector at Fugglestone St Peter. He died at age 39 of consumption in 1633 during the reign of Charles I.
Although he is generally considered a poet rather than a divine, he was a devoted priest and his thought is palpably in line with that of the Caroline divines. His poetry was championed by the laterOxford Movement and notably influenced the piety of the movement through his influence on figures likeJohn Keble.[16]
