Caroleans (Swedish:karoliner), fromCarolus, the Latin form of the nameCharles, is a term used to describesoldiers of theSwedish army during the reigns of KingsCharles XI andCharles XII ofSweden, and specifically from 1680, when Charles XI instituted anabsolute monarchy and embarked on a series of sweeping military reforms, to the death of Charles XII in 1718.[1]
The Caroleans are particularly associated with Charles XII and his campaigns in theGreat Northern War (1700–1721), during which they achieved a series of impressive victories, often against considerably larger enemy forces, and established themselves as one of the most feared and respected armies in Europe. However, the main Swedish field army was almost entirely annihilated after defeat at theBattle of Poltava, and the war eventually ended in utter defeat and the dissolution of theSwedish Empire.
Overall, 350,000 soldiers from Sweden, Finland, and the Baltic provinces died in the service of Charles XII during the Great Northern War, mostly from non-combat causes. Two-thirds of these, or over 230,000, died in the years 1700 to 1709. These losses constituted an unusually large percentage of the pre-war population of 2.5 million. The losses of their enemies (principallyRussia,Poland-Lithuania,Denmark-Norway and various northern German states) are known to have been even higher.[2]
In the early and mid-seventeenth century, theKingdom of Sweden established alarge empire in theBaltic Sea region andNorthern Germany. Its success rested in large part on the quality of its armed forces, which pioneerednumerous innovations later adopted by other European armies and were well-organised and generally well-led. However, the military was allowed to go into decline during theearly reign of Charles XI, when the king was a child and the country was directed by a council of regents led byMagnus Gabriel de la Gardie; many of the regents were openly corrupt, andembezzlement of royal revenues was widespread during this period.[3]
The neglect of the armed forces almost led to disaster during theScanian War (1675–9), when Sweden was invaded byDenmark-Norway. The attackers were eventually repulsed, but only after numerous setbacks and at the cost of appalling losses; indeed the 1676Battle of Lund is widely reckoned to be the bloodiest battle ever fought inScandinavia.[4]
The travails of the Swedish army during the Scanian War convinced Charles, who was by nowof age, that wholesale reform of the Swedish state was necessary in order to guarantee the security of the Swedish Empire. In 1680 he therefore institutedabsolutism, overthrowing the previous system of semi-constitutional monarchy under the1634 Instrument of Government, restored the royal finances by means of the so-calledGreat Reduction (confiscation of property embezzled by the aristocracy from the crown), and set about rebuilding the army, most notably through an overhaul of the allotment system.[3]
Since the sixteenth century, the Swedish army had used the so-called allotment system (Swedish:indelningsverket;Finnish:ruotujakolaitos) to raise troops. In 1682, Charles completely reformed it, establishing what modern historians refer to as the "new allotment system" (Swedish:yngre indelningsverket).[5][6]
Under the new system, Swedish farmers were to provide the crown with regiments of 1,000 or 1,200 men, complete with weapons and uniforms. Either independently or asrotes (groups) of no more than five, farmers would contract with the crown, with eachrote providing and supporting one soldier, including giving the soldier a cottage and a garden plot.[7] Each cavalryman was additionally provided with a horse. In exchange for these burdensome policies, eachrote was granted a reduction in taxes.[1]
The allotment system provided Charles XI with a professional army of 18,000 infantrymen and 8,000 cavalrymen. The system also provided for the deployment of 6,600 seamen, bolstering Sweden's navy. Adding to Sweden's numbers, Finland provided an additional 7,000 infantrymen, 3,000 cavalrymen, and 600 seamen.[1]
Carolean soldiers wore the Swedish Standard Uniform introduced by Charles XI—which featured bluegreat coats with yellow cuffs, white breeches, and yellow vests—with many regiments wearing variants thereof. For example, the dragoons of Bohuslän had green coats, and the regiment of Närke-Värmland had red cuffs. The artillery had grey coats with blue cuffs. As headgear, most Caroleans woretricorne hats or a special cap called akarpus.[8]
About two thirds of each infantry company were armed with muskets, and the rest with a 5.55 meters (18 foot 2 inches)pikes. Every infantryman was also armed with a sword, a straight-bladedrapier designed principally for thrusting.
At the outbreak of theGreat Northern War, the Swedish musketeers were mostly equipped with a 20 millimetres (0.79 in) calibreflintlockmusket without a bayonet. Twelve men of each company—typically the strongest and tallest—were grenadiers, who were the only soldiers to have bayonets affixed to their muskets, as regular musketeers were meant to use their rapiers for hand-to-hand combat. Grenadiers were often placed on the flanks of a unit to protect against cavalry. A bayonet-equipped musket was considered to be more practical for that, as it gave greater reach than a sword when facing a mounted opponent and could be braced against the impact of a charge. Eventually all musket-armed soldiers were issued bayonets as well in 1704, though they also still retained their swords.[9]
The Swedish heavy cavalryman was equipped with a rapier almost one metre long (primarily for thrusting and secondarily for slashing), acarbine and two pistols.[10] They also wore a steel breastplate and abuff coat. Eachdragoon was equipped with a rapier, a musket (with bayonet), and two pistols.[11]
A soldier's daily ration was to consist of 625 grams (22.0 oz) of dry bread, 850 grams (30 oz) of butter or pork,1⁄3 litre (0.59 imp pt; 0.70 US pt) of peas, and 2.5 litres (0.55 imp gal; 0.66 US gal) of beer. The butter or pork was often replaced by fish if the latter were available.[12] Water was generally avoided since it was often contaminated.
A Carolean infantryregiment consisted of roughly 1,200 men, divided into twobattalions of 600 men each. The battalion was the smallest tactical unit of the Swedish army and consisted of fourcompanies of 150 men each. Prior to battle, the men were usually formed into fourranks (four men deep), however, a battalion could also bespäckad (i.e.fattened) in six ranks.[11][13] About one-third of the men werepikemen. These pikemen often were in the middle of each battalion withmusketeers on their flanks; however, if the battalion wasspäckad, the pikemen were placed in the third and fourth ranks. Grenadiers were often on the flanks of the musketeers—on the left and right of each battalion—to protect against enemy cavalry and to toss grenades to break enemy formations (there being one grenadier for ten musketeers).[14] On occasion, the grenadiers formed their own battalions, such as theLife Grenadier Regiment. The width of a battalion was roughly 180 metres (590 ft) (or 135 metres (443 ft) with the battalion in close formation).[9]
A cavalry regiment consisted of roughly 800 men with 1000 horses among them, divided into foursquadrons of 200 men each.[15] The squadron was thetactical unit of the cavalry and consisted of two companies of 100 men each.[11]
TheDrabant Corps was a special unit made up of approximately 150 men under the personal command of KingCharles XII, of which he was captain. To become a private in the corps, one had to attain the rank of captain in the regular army. The corps second in command was acolonel with the title of Kaptenlöjtnant (Lieutenant-Captain). This corps fought to the bitter end, and some of its veterans carried Charles XII'scoffin toStockholm for burial in 1719.
Certainirregular units were also used, most notably theVlachs cavalry. However, these were not suited for combat, but onlyreconnaissance and to chaserouted enemies.[16]
Swedishmilitary doctrine of the Carolean era was distinguished by its emphasis on aggressive action andshock tactics, the so-calledgå-på (literally "go-on") method. This attitude stood in contrast to other European armies of the period, which were coming to rely increasingly onmusketry, delivered in the form ofvolley fire byline infantry, to win battles. As such, Swedish armies continued to field large numbers ofpikemen throughout the Great Northern War, even though the weapon hadlargely disappeared from western European battlefields by that time. Similarly, the proportion ofheavy cavalry in the Swedish army was unusually high by western standards.[17] Indeed, of the 31,000 Swedish soldiers who participated inCharles XII's Russian campaign, some 16800 troops, over half the overall force, were cavalrymen.[11]
Gå-på tactics enabled the Caroleans to repeatedly overcome much larger enemy armies, as the psychological impact of their rapid approach and their steely discipline under fire, combined with their fearsome reputation, often served to unsettle the opposing troops even before physical contact was made. Moreover, if some enemy troops lost their nerve and fled then panic could quite easily spread through the rest of the enemy force, so a quick success against even a relatively small enemy unit was often enough to trigger a generalrout.[18] The preference for aggressive action also served, perhaps counterintuitively, as a way to reduce losses, as it ensured that battles would be resolved quickly rather than degenerating into bloody attritional struggles, as often happened when two armies usingvolley tactics clashed. This was especially important for the Swedish army as it lacked the manpower reserves of larger neighbours likePoland-Lithuania andRussia, and thus could not replenish its ranks after heavy defeats.
The downsides of thegå-på doctrine were that it required strict discipline on the part of the soldiers (see below), and that it was, like allshock tactics a fundamentally risky strategy which could backfire horribly if the commander misjudged the time or place to mount an attack, or if an assault was mounted against enemies with high morale in prepared defensive positions. The latter scenario occurred at theBattle of Poltava, wherePeter the Great was able to lure Charles XII into mounting an attack against a Russian camp protected byfield fortifications, leading to an overwhelming Swedish defeat.
Never have I seen such a combination of uncontrollable dash and
perfectly controlled discipline, such soldiers and such subjects
are not to be found the wide world over except in Sweden
According to army regulations of 1694 and 1701, infantry attacks were to be executed as follows: In fourranks with gaps, a Swedish battalion would march "smoothly and slowly" towards the enemy lines, braving enemy fire that often started at a distance of approximately 100 metres. The Swedish soldiers were told not to fire until "you could see the whites in the enemies' eyes", a range of roughly 50 metres. When the marching drums stopped the two rear ranks would fill the gaps within the two foremost ranks and fire a salvo, then draw theirswords. The two rear ranks would then move back to their previousposition, and the two foremost ranks would close the gaps in their lines, after which thebattalion would resume their attack. The two foremost ranks would discharge their muskets in a final volley when they were within range to charge, a distance of roughly 20 metres. At these ranges, the powerful muskets usually felled many enemy troops, having a great physical and psychological impact on opponents.[20]
Directly after the final volley, the Caroleans charged the enemy ranks with pikes, bayonets, andrapiers.[21] Note that the pikes were used as an offensive weapon; in close combat, they had the advantage over their foes' weapons due to their long reach. Often, complete ranks of enemies fled before physical contact was made, frightened by the long pikes and the fact that the Swedish battalions had previously calmly withstood their fire.[18]
This method was slightly changed during theGreat Northern War. The slow march was replaced by running, to take fewer casualties and begin combat sooner, while optimally still frightening the enemy with a swift, unflinching advance into their fire. The Swedish firing distance was reduced from 50 metres to 15–20 metres for the first volley of the rear ranks who would no longer fall into their previous position behind the front ranks. Instead, they would follow in the gaps within the front ranks. As a result, the battalion attacked in two closely formed ranks, which made the final charge more effective, as the Carolean troops would be closely packed together, making a heavier impact than before.
The Swedish cavalry fought in a similarly aggressive way, also called the "Carolean manner".[14] Whereas in other European armies, cavalry would form up "knee to the knee" (i.e. in a line, usually only one or two ranks deep), the Swedish cavalry would form up in a tightly packedwedge formation several ranks deep, "knee behind knee" (Swedish:knä bakom knä), in order to ensure that theircharge struck the enemy with the maximum possible force. They were moreover armed withrapiers, swords specifically designed for stabbing rather than slashing.[10]
The cavalry would not normally use theirpistols during the charge (again in contrast to practice elsewhere in Europe), and in 1704 a new regulation was enacted explicitly forbidding troopers from using the pistol when charging; pistols were still carried, but were to be used during themelee combat after the charge, or when pursuingrouted enemies. In 1705, another regulation decreed that the cavalry were to ride at atrot during the initial phase of the attack and then break into a fullgallop just before reaching the enemy.[10][21]
Close coordination between infantry, cavalry, and sometimes artillery was needed to break down enemy defences successfully. Only infantry would normally risk afrontal assault on a well-prepared enemy line, preferably with artillery assistance. Regimental cannons would keep pace with infantry and protect them against enemy attacks as they reloaded. The cavalry would strike the opposing cavalry or charge disorganized infantry, preferably in the flank or rear. Cavalry was also used to cover an army inretreat or to interfere with and chase remaining enemy after a successful infantry attack. If a cavalry attack were repulsed, it would fall back behind friendly infantry lines and regroup. If necessary, the infantry could fall back using alternatingfiring and movement. In some situations,infantry squares were used for protection against flanking cavalry attacks.[20] This formation was effective as all sides of the square would be facing outwards, removing the risk of a vulnerable rear or flank attack, and the formation presented enemy horses with a tightly packed mass of troops and a veritable hedge of sharp weapons, discouraging them from a charge.
Coordination between the different branches of the army was especially important for the Swedish victory at theBattle of Gadebusch, which was achieved largely through close coordination between the Swedish infantry and artillery.[22]
Religion played a crucial role in the Carolean army.[23] In addition to swearing fidelity to the Swedish king, the soldiers had to learn and follow the precepts andLutheran doctrines of theChurch of Sweden, and those who flouted religious regulations could be punished severely. For example,blasphemy was regarded as acapital offence.[24] Religion was especially important for building cohesion among the soldiers, who were recruited from all over theSwedish Empire, includingBremen-Verden,Pomerania andLivonia, although Swedes and Finns always comprised a large majority. Even then, however,national identity was nowhere near as strong as it would become in later centuries, and a Swede from, say,Dalarna would feel little sense of compatriotism with one fromSkåne orÅngermanland, let alone a Finn fromSavonia. Religion was therefore important for encouraging a sense of unity and common purpose amongst the heterogenous soldiery, especially in the face of enemies considered to be "heretics", such as theCatholicPoles orOrthodoxRussians. Prayers andHoly Communion were held before most Carolean battles, and field chaplains sometimes even accompanied the men onto the battlefield.[23][24]
The chaplains' sermons often reminded soldiers that they had God's protection and assistance in battle, a notion originating when Sweden fought inthe Thirty Years War as the continental leader ofProtestantism. After theBattle of Narva, many soldiers believed that God had sent theblizzard that led to their victory as a punishment for their enemies' sins and hubris.[citation needed] After the catastrophe at Poltava, many Caroleans became convinced that God had changed sides.[citation needed]
Good discipline was vital for the Swedish army's highly aggressivegå-på tactics, which required the Caroleans to keep in formation and hold their fire as they approached the enemy, even if coming under a hail of bullets themselves. One way of inculcating such extreme self-control was by encouraging a sort offatalism among the troops: soldiers were told not to be afraid of battle, since if God wanted them to survive then nothing could harm them, and conversely if He had decreed that they were to die then death would come even if they tried to flee. On a more practical level, the army enforced draconian codes of discipline in order to encourage immediate and unthinking obedience among the men.[25]
Deliberate efforts were also made to boost the soldiers' morale in various ways. New recruits were sorted into regiments based on particular provinces and districts, in order to encourage a sense of local pride andesprit de corps.[25]
Similarly, Charles XII is known to have tried to foster a sense of fraternity within the army by grantingcommissions and promotions on the basis ofmerit rather than social status or wealth, as was common inother European armies at the time. A famous example of this policy concerns the young Count Oxenstierna, grandson of the famous statesmanAxel Oxenstierna, who began his military career as a simple cavalryman, later promoted tocorporal.Carl Piper urged Charles to promote the count tocornet, but the king refused, declaring that, "Old nobility and new nobility mean nothing as to the quality of a man. We have many regimental officers in the army who are not nobles and yet good folk. When a cavalryman is good, it is just the same, whether he is a nobleman or nothing. "[26]
The army's efforts were generally successful; the Swedish army was renowned for the high levels of battlefield discipline among its troops, and the ability of the Caroleans to advance steadily through barrages of punishing enemy fire often served to impress and unsettle their opponents, giving them a moral edge when the melee fighting began. On the other hand, the Caroleans' discipline was not always flawless away from the battlefield. Even thoughlooting was strictly forbidden in the Swedish army, Swedish soldiers were known to engage in the practice from time to time, most notoriously in the aftermath of theBattle of Narva (1700) andStorming of Lemberg.[23] Abuses against civilians were also not unheard-of, although Charles XII issued strict ordinances against such excesses during his Polish andSaxon campaigns; several instances are recorded of Swedish soldiers being sentenced to death after flouting these orders.[27]
The term "Carolean" is not used for Swedish soldiers after the death of Charles XII in 1718, the return toconstitutional monarchy under the1719 Instrument of Government and the end of the Great Northern War in 1721. However, the Swedish army continued to use the equipment, organisation and tactics of the Carolean period for the next sixty years, until the reforms of KingGustav III in the late 1770s.[28]
Officers were required to provide a different number of spare horses depending on their rank, but these were mostly riderless or in contemporary/jargon 'empty'. Thus a company of 125 'horses' numbered in reality about 100 troopers.