The work is narrated by Laura, a young woman living in a secluded Austrian castle, who becomes the object of both affection and predation by the enigmatic Carmilla, leading to a complex and dangerous relationship marked by both romantic desires and vampiric violence. The narrative explores themes ofsexual identity, thesupernatural, and the tension between innocence and corruption, while maintaining a sense of dread and suspense.
The novella was one of the first works of Gothic fiction to portrayfemale empowerment, as Carmilla is the opposite of male vampires, since she is actually involved with her victims both emotionally and physically. In the novella, Le Fanu challenges the Victorian view of women as merely being useful possessions of men, depending on them and needing their guardianship. The character is also one of the first fictional figures to represent the concept ofdualism, which is presented in the story through the repeated contrasting natures of both vampires and humans, as well as lesbian and heterosexual traits. Critics have stated thatCarmilla exhibits many of the early traits of Gothic fiction, including a supernatural figure, an old castle, a strange atmosphere, and ominous elements.
Carmilla deeply defined the vampire fiction genre and Gothic horror in general, and established Le Fanu as a major writer in the genre. The novella directly influenced later horror and mystery writers such asBram Stoker,M. R. James,Henry James, and others. Due to its popularity, the work has beenanthologised, having been adapted extensively forfilms, operas, video games,Halloween plays, comics, cartoons, radio, and other media since the late 19th century.
Illustration by Michael Fitzgerald for Le Fanu's storyCarmilla in "The Dark Blue" (January 1872), electrotype after wood-engraving, reproduced in Best Ghost Stories, ed. Bleiler.
Carmilla, serialised in the literary magazineThe Dark Blue in late 1871 and early 1872,[4] was reprinted in Le Fanu's short-story collectionIn a Glass Darkly (1872). Comparing the work of twoillustrators of the story,David Henry Friston and Michael Fitzgerald—whose work appears in the magazine article but not in modern printings of the book—reveals inconsistencies in the characters' depictions. Consequently, confusion has arisen relating the pictures to the plot.[5] Isabella Mazzanti illustrated the book's 2014 edition, published by Editions Soleil and translated by Gaid Girard.[6]
The story is presented as part of the casebook of Dr. Hesselius.[a]
A woman named Laura narrates, beginning with her childhood in a "picturesque and solitary" castle amid an extensive forest inStyria, where she lives with her father, a wealthyEnglish widower retired from service to theAustrian Empire. When she was six, Laura had a vision of a beautiful visitor in her bedchamber. She later claims to have been punctured in her breast, although no wound was found. All the household assure Laura that it was just a dream, but they step up security as well and there is no subsequent vision or visitation.
Twelve years later, Laura's father tells her of a letter from his friend, General Spielsdorf. The General was supposed to visit them with his niece, Bertha Rheinfeldt, but she died under mysterious circumstances. The General promises to discuss the circumstances in detail when they meet later.
Laura, saddened by the loss of a potential friend, longs for a companion. A carriage accident outside Laura's home unexpectedly brings Carmilla, a girl of Laura's age, into the family's care. Both girls instantly recognise each other from the "dream" they both had when they were young.
Carmilla appears injured after her carriage accident, but her mysterious mother informs Laura's father that her journey is urgent and cannot be delayed. She arranges to leave Carmilla with Laura and her father until she can return in three months. Before leaving, she notes that Carmilla will not disclose any information whatsoever about her family, her past, or herself.
Carmilla and Laura grow to be close friends, but occasionally Carmilla's mood abruptly changes. She sometimes makes romantic advances towards Laura. Carmilla refuses to tell anything about herself, despite questioning by Laura. Her secrecy is not the only mysterious thing about Carmilla; she never joins the household in its prayers, she sleeps much of the day, and she seems to sleepwalk outside at night.
Meanwhile, young women and girls in the nearby towns have begun dying from an unknown malady. When the funeral procession of one such victim passes by the two girls, Laura joins in the funeral hymn. Carmilla bursts out in rage and scolds Laura, complaining that the hymn hurts her ears.
When a shipment of restoredheirloom paintings arrives, Laura finds a portrait of her ancestor, Countess Mircalla Karnstein, dated 1698. The portrait resembles Carmilla exactly, down to the mole on her neck. Carmilla suggests that she might be descended from the Karnsteins, though the family died out centuries before.
During Carmilla's stay, Laura has nightmares of a large, cat-like beast entering her room. The beast springs onto the bed and Laura feels something like two needles, an inch or two apart, darting deep into her breast. The beast then takes the form of a female figure and disappears through the door without opening it. In another nightmare, Laura hears a voice say, "Your mother warns you to beware of the assassin," and a light reveals Carmilla standing at the foot of her bed, her nightdress drenched in blood. Laura's health declines, and her father has a doctor examine her. He finds a small, blue spot, an inch or two below her collar, where the creature in her dream bit her, and speaks privately with her father, only asking that Laura never be unattended.
Her father sets out with Laura in a carriage for the ruined village of Karnstein, three miles distant. They leave a message behind asking Carmilla and a governess to follow once the perpetually late-sleeping Carmilla awakes. En route to Karnstein, Laura and her father encounter Spielsdorf, who tells them his story.
At a costume ball, Spielsdorf and Bertha had met a beautiful young woman named Millarca and her enigmatic mother. Bertha was immediately taken with Millarca. The mother convinced Spielsdorf that she was an old friend of his and asked that Millarca be allowed to stay with them for three weeks while she attended to a secret matter of great importance.
Bertha fell mysteriously ill, suffering the same symptoms as Laura. After consulting with a specially ordered priestly doctor, Spielsdorf realised that Bertha was being visited by a vampire. He hid with a sword and waited until a large, black creature crawled onto Bertha's bed and spread itself onto her throat. He leapt from his hiding place and attacked the creature, which had then taken the form of Millarca. She fled through the locked door, unharmed. Bertha died before the morning dawned.
Upon arriving at Karnstein, Spielsdorf asks a woodman where he can find the tomb of Mircalla Karnstein. The woodman says the tomb was relocated long ago by a Moravian nobleman who vanquished the vampires haunting the region.
While Spielsdorf and Laura are alone in the ruined chapel, Carmilla appears. Spielsdorf attacks her with an axe. Carmilla disarms Spielsdorf and disappears. Spielsdorf explains that Carmilla is also Millarca, both anagrams for the original name of the vampire Mircalla, Countess Karnstein.
The party is joined by Baron Vordenburg, the descendant of the hero who rid the area of vampires. Vordenburg, an authority on vampires, has discovered that his ancestor was romantically involved with Mircalla before she died. Using his forefather's notes, he locates Mircalla's hidden tomb. An imperial commission exhumes the body of Mircalla. Immersed in blood, it seems to be breathing faintly, its heart beating, its eyes open. A stake is driven through its heart, and it gives a corresponding shriek; then, the head is struck off. The body and head are burned to ashes, which are thrown into a river.
Afterwards, Laura's father takes his daughter on a year-long tour through Italy to regain her health and recover from the trauma, but she never fully does.
Carmilla exhibits the primary characteristics of Gothic fiction. It includes a supernatural figure, a dark setting of an old castle, a mysterious atmosphere, and ominous or superstitious elements.[9]
In the novella, Le Fanu opposes the Victorian view of women as merely useful possessions of men, relying on men and needing their constant guardianship. The male characters of the story, such as Laura's father and General Spielsdorf, are exposed as being the opposite of the putative Victorian males—helpless and unproductive.[10] The nameless father reaches an agreement with Carmilla's mother, whereas Spielsdorf cannot control the faith of his niece, Bertha. Both of these scenes portray women as equal, if not superior to men.[11] This female empowerment is even more clear if we consider Carmilla's vampiric predecessors and their relationship with their prey.[12] Carmilla is the opposite of those male vampires—she is actually involved with her victims both emotionally and (theoretically) sexually. Moreover, she is able to exceed even more limitations by dominating death. In the end, her immortality is suggested to be sustained by the river where her ashes had been scattered.[13]
Le Fanu also departs from the negative idea of female parasitism and lesbianism by depicting a mutual and irresistible connection between Carmilla and Laura.[14] The latter, along with other female characters, becomes a symbol of all Victorian women—restrained and judged for their emotional reflexes. The ambiguity of Laura's speech and behaviour reveals her struggles with being fully expressive of her concerns and desires.[15]
Another important element of "Carmilla" is the concept of dualism presented through the juxtaposition of vampire and human, as well as lesbian and heterosexual.[16] It is also vivid in Laura's irresolution, since she "feels both attraction and repulsion" towards Carmilla.[17] The duality of Carmilla's character is suggested by her human attributes, the lack of predatory demeanour, and her shared experience with Laura.[18] According to Gabriella Jönsson, Carmilla can be seen as a representation of the dark side of all mankind.[19]
As withDracula, critics have looked for the sources used in the writing ofCarmilla. One source used was from a dissertation on magic, vampires, and the apparitions of spirits written byDom Augustin Calmet entitledTraité sur les apparitions des esprits et sur les vampires ou les revenants de Hongrie, de Moravie, &c. (1751). This is evidenced by a report analysed by Calmet, from a priest who learned information of a town being tormented by a vampiric entity three years earlier. Having travelled to the town to investigate and collecting information of the various inhabitants there, the priest learned that a vampire had tormented many of the inhabitants at night by coming from the nearby cemetery and would haunt many of the residents on their beds. An unknown Hungarian traveller came to the town during this period and helped the town by setting a trap at the cemetery and decapitating the vampire that resided there, curing the town of their torment. This story was retold by Le Fanu and adapted into the thirteenth chapter ofCarmilla.[20][21][22][23]
Carmilla, the title character, is the original prototype for a legion of female andlesbian vampires. Although Le Fanu portrays his vampire'ssexuality with the circumspection that one would expect for his time,[clarification needed] lesbian attraction evidently is the main dynamic between Carmilla and the narrator of the story:[26][27]
Sometimes after an hour of apathy, my strange and beautiful companion would take my hand and hold it with a fond pressure, renewed again and again; blushing softly, gazing in my face with languid and burning eyes, and breathing so fast that her dress rose and fell with the tumultuous respiration. It was like the ardour of a lover; it embarrassed me; it was hateful and yet overpowering; and with gloating eyes she drew me to her, and her hot lips travelled along my cheek in kisses; and she would whisper, almost in sobs, "You are mine, youshall be mine, and you and I are one for ever." (Carmilla, Chapter 4).
When compared to other literary vampires of the 19th century, Carmilla is a similar product of a culture with strict sexual mores and tangible religious fear. While Carmilla selected exclusively female victims, she only becomes emotionally involved with a few. Carmilla hadnocturnal habits, but was not confined to the darkness. She had unearthly beauty, and was able to change her form and to pass through solid walls. Her animal alter ego was a monstrous black cat, not a large dog as inDracula. She did, however, sleep in a coffin.Carmilla works as aGothic horror story because her victims are portrayed as succumbing to a perverse and unholy temptation that has severe metaphysical consequences for them.[28]
Le Fanu's work has been noted as an influence on Bram Stoker's masterwork of the genre,Dracula:
Both stories are told in thefirst person.Dracula expands on the idea of a first person account by creating a series of journal entries and logs of different persons and creating a plausible background story for their having been compiled.
Both authors indulge the air of mystery, though Stoker takes it further than Le Fanu by allowing the characters to solve the enigma of the vampire along with the reader.
The descriptions of the title character inCarmilla and of Lucy inDracula are similar. Additionally, both womensleepwalk.
Stoker's Dr.Abraham Van Helsing is similar to Le Fanu's vampire expert Baron Vordenburg: both characters investigate and catalyze actions in opposition to the vampire.
The symptoms described inCarmilla andDracula are highly comparable.[30]
Both the titular antagonists—Carmilla and Dracula, respectively—pretend to be the descendants of much older nobles bearing the same names, but are eventually revealed to have the same identities. However, with Dracula, this is left ambiguous. Although it is stated by Van Helsing (a character with a slightly awkward grasp of the English language) that he "must, indeed, have been that Voivode Dracula who won his name against the Turk, over the great river on the very frontier of Turkey-land", the next statement begins with "If it be so", thereby leaving a thin margin of ambiguity.[31]
"Dracula's Guest", a short story by Stoker believed to have been a deleted prologue toDracula, is also set in Styria, where an unnamed Englishman takes shelter in a mausoleum from a storm. There, he meets a female vampire, named Countess Dolingen von Gratz.[32]
The novellaCarmilla and Laura by S.D. Simper is a reimagining of the original novella. InCarmilla and Laura, the two women develop a true romantic relationship.[33][34]
The novelCarmilla: The Wolves of Styria is a re-imagining of the original story. It is a derivative re-working, listed as being authored byJ.S. Le Fanu and David Brian.[35]
Theodora Goss' 2018 novelEuropean Travel for the Monstrous Gentlewoman (the second inThe Extraordinary Adventures of the Athena Club series) features a heroic Carmilla and her partner Laura Jennings aiding The Athena Club in their fight against a villainous Abraham Van Helsing.
Rachel Klein's 2002 novelThe Moth Diaries features several excerpts fromCarmilla, as the novel figures into the plot of Klein's story, and both deal with similar subject matter and themes. The book was adapted in afeature film in 2011 written and directed byMary Harron.[36]
Undead Girl Murder Farce is a Japanese light novel series by Yugo Aosaki that began publication in 2015. Many of the characters in the series are from 19th-century European literature. Carmilla is a recurring antagonist. This also has manga and anime adaptations.[37]
An Education in Malice by S.T. Gibson retells Carmilla inMassachusetts at a 1960s college.[38]
Hungerstone by Kat Dunn (2025) tells the story of Lenore, a troubled Victorian wife, whose life is changed after meeting Carmilla. The book contains many elements from the original story.
In 1991,Aircel Comics published a six-issue black and white miniseries ofCarmilla by Steven Jones andJohn Ross. It was based on Le Fanu's story and billed as "The Erotic Horror Classic of Female Vampirism". The first issue was printed in February 1991. The first three issues adapted the original story, while the latter three were a sequel set in the 1930s.[39][40]
In 2023,Dark Horse Comics's Berger Books imprint publishedCarmilla: The First Vampire written byAmy Chu with art by Soo Lee and set in 1990s New York City.[41] Snippets from the original story are used as the main character consults the original story while investigating a series of murders.[42] The collected edition went on to win theBram Stoker Award forSuperior Achievement in a Graphic Novel[43]
Danish directorCarl Dreyer loosely adaptedCarmilla for his filmVampyr (1932) but deleted any references to lesbian sexuality.[44] The credits of the original film say that the film is based onIn a Glass Darkly. This collection contains five tales, one of which isCarmilla. The film draws its central character, Allan Gray, from Le Fanu's Dr. Hesselius; and the scene in which Gray is buried alive is drawn from "The Room in the Dragon Volant".
French directorRoger Vadim'sEt mourir de plaisir (shown in the UK and US asBlood and Roses, 1960) is based onCarmilla. The Vadim film thoroughly explores the lesbian implications behind Carmilla's selection of victims, and boasts cinematography byClaude Renoir. The film's lesbian eroticism was, however, significantly cut for its US release.Annette Stroyberg,Elsa Martinelli andMel Ferrer star in the film.[46][47]
A more-or-less faithful adaptation starringChristopher Lee was produced in Italy in 1963 under the titleLa cripta e l'incubo (Crypt of the Vampire in English). The character of Laura, played byAdriana Ambesi, fears herself possessed by the spirit of a dead ancestor, played by Ursula Davis (also known as Pier Anna Quaglia).[48]
The 2000 Japanese anime filmVampire Hunter D: Bloodlust features Carmilla "the Bloody Countess" as its primary antagonist. Having been slain by Dracula for her vain and gluttonous tyranny, Carmilla's ghost attempts to use the blood of a virgin to bring about her own resurrection.[54] She was voiced byJulia Fletcher in English andBeverly Maeda in Japanese.[55]
In the direct-to-video movieThe Batman vs. Dracula (2005), Carmilla Karnstein is mentioned asCount Dracula's bride, who had been incinerated by sunlight years ago. Dracula hoped to revive her by sacrificingVicki Vale's soul, but the ritual was stopped by theBatman.[56]
The book is directly referenced several times in the 2011 film,The Moth Diaries, the film version ofRachel Klein's novel. There are conspicuous similarities between the characters in "Carmilla" and those in the film, and the book figures into the film's plot.[58][36]
The Unwanted (2014) from writer/director Brent Wood relocates the story to the contemporary southern United States, withHannah Fierman as Laura, Christen Orr as Carmilla, and Kylie Brown as Millarca.[59]
The Curse of Styria (2014), alternately titledAngels of Darkness is an adaptation of the novel set in late 1980s withJulia Pietrucha as Carmilla andEleanor Tomlinson as Lara.[60]
In 2017The Carmilla Movie, based on the 2015 web series of the same name was released. Directed by Spencer Maybee and produced by Steph Ouaknine, the movie follows up the web series five years after the finale.[61][62]
Carmilla (2019), written and directed by Emily Harris, was inspired by the novella. Fifteen-year-old Lara (Hannah Rae) develops feelings for Carmilla (Devrim Lingnau), but her strict governess believes their strange houseguest is a vampire.[63] Harris says she "stripped back" the supernatural layers to consider the story as a "derailed love story" and "a story about our tendency as humans to demonize the other".[64]
Achamber opera version ofCarmilla appeared inCarmilla: A Vampire Tale (1970), music byBen Johnston, script byWilford Leach. Seated on a sofa, Laura and Carmilla recount the story retrospectively in song.[65]
TheColumbia Workshop presented an adaptation (CBS, July 28, 1940, 30 min.).Lucille Fletcher's script, directed by Earle McGill, relocated the story to contemporary New York state and allows Carmilla (Jeanette Nolan) to claim her victim Helen (Joan Tetzel).[69][70]
In 1975, theCBS Radio Mystery Theater broadcast an adaptation byIan Martin (CBS, July 31, 1975, rebroadcast December 10, 1975).Mercedes McCambridge played Laura Stanton,Marian Seldes played Carmilla.[71]
AGerman language adaptation ofCarmilla by Friedhelm Schneidewind, from Studio-Theatre Saarbruecken, toured Germany and other European countries (including Romania) from April 1994 until 2000.[75]
TheWildclaw Theater inChicago performed a full-length adaptation ofCarmilla by Aly Renee Amidei in January and February 2011.[76]
Zombie Joe's Underground Theater Group inNorth Hollywood performed an hour-long adaptation ofCarmilla, by David MacDowell Blue, in February and March 2014.[77]
"Carmilla" directed by Janusz Kondratiuk was a television spectacle aired on Polish Television Channel 1 on 13 November 1980.[79]
Carmilla is a major antagonist in theCastlevania animated series, where she was first introduced in Season 2 as a secondary antagonist, acting as a sly and ambitious general on Dracula's War Council. Unlike her video-game counterpart, who is immensely faithful to her leader, Carmilla takes issue with Dracula's plan to kill off their only source of food and has designs to take Dracula's place and build her own army to subjugate humanity alongside her Council of Sisters, Lenore (inspired by Laura), Striga, and Morana. Her plans are bolstered by Dracula's death at the hands of his son, Alucard, and her kidnapping of the Devil Forgemaster, Hector. She is later personally confronted by Isaac, Dracula's other loyal Devil Forgemaster, when he and his Night Creature horde invade her castle in Styria to rescue Hector and put an end to her ambitions. After singlehandedly fighting him and his host of demons, she commits suicide in Season 4.[80][81][82]
Carmilla is aweb series onYouTube starringNatasha Negovanlis as Carmilla andElise Bauman as Laura. First released on August 19, 2014, it is a comedic, modern adaptation of the novella which takes place at a modern-day university, where both girls are students. They become roommates after Laura's first roommate mysteriously disappears and Carmilla moves in, taking her place. The final episode of the web series was released on October 13, 2016.[83] In 2017, a movie was made based on the series.The Carmilla Movie was initially released on October 26, 2017, to Canadian audiences through Cineplex theatres for one night only. A digital streaming version was also pre-released on October 26, 2017, for fans who had pre-ordered the film on VHX.[84] The following day the movie enjoyed a wide release on streaming platform Fullscreen.[85]
In the Japanese action game seriesOnechanbara, Carmilla is the matriarch of the Vampiric clan. She appears in the 2011 titleOnechanbara Z ~ Kagura ~ as the manipulator & main antagonist of sister heroines Kagura and Saaya, first using them to attack her rivals before trying (and failing) to eliminate them as pawns.[87]
Carmilla is a playable character in Ravenswatch, a fantasy action game which features a variety of cultural and literary characters.[88]
In April 2025, the Government of Belarus added the book to the list of printed publications containing information messages and materials, the distribution of which could harm thenational interests ofBelarus.[89]
^Le Fanu, Sheridan (1871–72)."Carmilla".The Dark Blue.2 (September 1871 to February 1872):434–448,592–606,701–714.
^Le Fanu, Sheridan (1872)."Carmilla".The Dark Blue.3 (March):59–78.
^Skal, David John (November 2014)."The Lady Who Munched".The Green Book: Writings on Irish Gothic, Supernatural and Fantastic Literature.4 (4). Dublin: Swan River Press:57–68.ISSN2009-6089.JSTOR48536059.
^The story ran in one issue of 1871 (December, pp. 434–448) and in three issues of 1872 (January, pp. 592–606; February, pp. 701–714; and March, pp. 59–78).
^Calmet, Augustin (30 December 2015).Treatise on the Apparitions of Spirits and on Vampires or Revenants: of Hungary, Moravia, et al. The Complete Volumes I & II. 2016. CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform.ISBN978-1-5331-4568-0.
^Gibson, Matthew (2006).Dracula and the Eastern Question: British and French Vampire Narratives of the Nineteenth-century Near East. Palgrave Macmillan UK.ISBN1-4039-9477-3.
^Veeder, William (1980). "Carmilla: The Art of Repression".Texas Studies in Literature and Language.22 (2) (Vol. 22, No. 2 ed.). University of Texas Press:197–223.JSTOR40754606.
^"Voice Of Carmilla - Vampire Hunter D". Behind The Voice Actors. Retrieved5 April 2024. Check mark indicates role has been confirmed using screenshots of closing credits and other reliable sources{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: postscript (link)
The full text ofCarmilla at Wikisource
Carmilla public domain audiobook atLibriVox