Carl Linnaeus[a] (23 May 1707[note 1] – 10 January 1778), also known afterennoblement in 1761 asCarl von Linné,[3][b] was a Swedishbiologist andphysician who formalisedbinomial nomenclature, the modern system of naming organisms. He is known as the "father of moderntaxonomy".[4] Many of his writings were in Latin; his name is rendered in Latin asCarolus Linnæus and, after his 1761 ennoblement, asCarolus a Linné.
Linnaeus was the son of acurate[5] and was born inRåshult, in the countryside ofSmåland, southernSweden. He received most of his higher education atUppsala University and began giving lectures in botany there in 1730. He lived abroad between 1735 and 1738, where he studied and also published the first edition of hisSystema Naturae in the Netherlands. He then returned to Sweden where he became professor of medicine and botany at Uppsala. In the 1740s, he was sent on several journeys through Sweden to find and classify plants and animals. In the 1750s and 1760s, he continued to collect and classify animals, plants, and minerals, while publishing several volumes. By the time of his death in 1778, he was one of the most acclaimed scientists in Europe.
PhilosopherJean-Jacques Rousseau sent him the message: "Tell him I know no greater man on Earth."[6]Johann Wolfgang von Goethe wrote: "With the exception ofWilliam Shakespeare andBaruch Spinoza, I know no one among the no longer living who has influenced me more strongly."[6] Swedish authorAugust Strindberg wrote: "Linnaeus was in reality a poet who happened to become a naturalist."[7] Linnaeus has been calledPrinceps botanicorum (Prince of Botanists) and "ThePliny of the North".[8] He is also considered one of the founders of modernecology.[9]
In botany, the abbreviationL. is used to indicate Linnaeus as the authority for a species' name.[10] In zoology, the abbreviationLinnaeus is generally used; the abbreviations L.,Linnæus, andLinné are also used.[c] In older publications, the abbreviation "Linn." is found. Linnaeus's remains constitute thetype specimen for the speciesHomo sapiens[11] following theInternational Code of Zoological Nomenclature, since the sole specimen that he is known to have examined was himself.[note 2]
Linnaeus was born in the village ofRåshult inSmåland, Sweden, on 23 May 1707. He was the first child of Nicolaus (Nils) Ingemarsson (who later adopted the family name Linnaeus) and Christina Brodersonia. His siblings were Anna Maria Linnæa, Sofia Juliana Linnæa, Samuel Linnæus (who would eventually succeed their father asrector of Stenbrohult and write a manual onbeekeeping),[12][13][14] and Emerentia Linnæa.[15] His father taught him Latin as a small child.[16]
One of a long line of peasants and priests, Nils was an amateurbotanist, aLutheran minister, and thecurate of the small village of Stenbrohult in Småland. Christina was the daughter of the rector of Stenbrohult, Samuel Brodersonius.[17]
A year after Linnaeus's birth, his grandfather Samuel Brodersonius died, and his father Nils became the rector of Stenbrohult. The family moved into therectory from the curate's house.[18][19]
Even in his early years, Linnaeus seemed to have a liking for plants, flowers in particular. Whenever he was upset, he was given a flower, which immediately calmed him. Nils spent much time in his garden and often showed flowers to Linnaeus and told him their names. Soon Linnaeus was given his own patch of earth where he could grow plants.[20]
Carl's father was the first in his ancestry to adopt a permanent surname. Before that, ancestors had used thepatronymic naming system of Scandinavian countries: his father was named Ingemarsson after his father Ingemar Bengtsson. When Nils was admitted to theLund University, he had to take on a family name. He adopted the Latinate name Linnæus after a giantlinden tree (or lime tree),lind in Swedish, that grew on the family homestead.[12] This name was spelled with theæligature. When Carl was born, he was named Carl Linnæus, with his father's family name. The son also always spelled it with the æ ligature, both in handwritten documents and in publications.[18] Carl's patronymic would have been Nilsson, as in Carl Nilsson Linnæus.[21]
Early education
Örtaboken (Herb book), an early Linnaeus manuscript, 1725
Linnaeus's father began teaching him basic Latin, religion, and geography at an early age.[22] When Linnaeus was seven, Nils decided to hire a tutor for him. The parents picked Johan Telander, a son of a localyeoman. Linnaeus did not like him, writing in his autobiography that Telander "was better calculated to extinguish a child's talents than develop them".[23]
Two years after his tutoring had begun, he was sent to the LowerGrammar School atVäxjö in 1717.[24] Linnaeus rarely studied, often going to the countryside to look for plants. At some point, his father went to visit him and, after hearing critical assessments by his preceptors, he decided to put the youth as an apprentice to some honest cobbler.[25] He reached the last year of the Lower School when he was fifteen, which was taught by the headmaster, Daniel Lannerus, who was interested in botany. Lannerus noticed Linnaeus's interest in botany and gave him the run of his garden.
He also introduced him to Johan Rothman, the state doctor of Småland and a teacher atKatedralskolan (agymnasium) in Växjö. Also a botanist, Rothman broadened Linnaeus's interest in botany and helped him develop an interest in medicine.[26][27] By the age of 17, Linnaeus had become well acquainted with the existing botanical literature. He remarks in his journal that he "read day and night, knowing like the back of my hand, Arvidh Månsson'sRydaholm Book of Herbs, Tillandz'sFlora Åboensis,Palmberg'sSerta Florea Suecana, Bromelii'sChloros Gothica and Rudbeckii'sHortus Upsaliensis".[28]
Linnaeus entered the Växjö Katedralskola in 1724, where he studied mainlyGreek,Hebrew,theology, andmathematics, a curriculum designed for boys preparing for the priesthood.[29][30] In the last year at the gymnasium, Linnaeus's father visited to ask the professors how his son's studies were progressing; to his dismay, most said that the boy would never become a scholar. Rothman believed otherwise, suggesting Linnaeus could have a future in medicine. The doctor offered to have Linnaeus live with his family in Växjö and to teach himphysiology and botany. Nils accepted this offer.[31][32]
Rothman showed Linnaeus that botany was a serious subject. He taught Linnaeus to classify plants according toTournefort's system. Linnaeus was also taught about the sexual reproduction of plants, according toSébastien Vaillant.[31] In 1727, Linnaeus, age 21, enrolled inLund University inSkåne.[33][34] He was registered asCarolus Linnæus, the Latin form of his full name, which he also used later for his Latin publications.[3]
ProfessorKilian Stobæus, natural scientist, physician and historian, offered Linnaeus tutoring and lodging, as well as the use of his library, which included many books about botany. He also gave the student free admission to his lectures.[35][36] In his spare time, Linnaeus explored the flora of Skåne, together with students sharing the same interests.[37]
Uppsala
Pollination depicted inPraeludia Sponsaliorum Plantarum (1729)
In August 1728, Linnaeus decided to attendUppsala University on the advice of Rothman, who believed it would be a better choice if Linnaeus wanted to study both medicine and botany. Rothman based this recommendation on the two professors who taught at the medical faculty at Uppsala:Olof Rudbeck the Younger andLars Roberg. Although Rudbeck and Roberg had undoubtedly been good professors, by then they were older and not so interested in teaching. Rudbeck no longer gave public lectures, and had others stand in for him. The botany, zoology, pharmacology and anatomy lectures were not in their best state.[38] In Uppsala, Linnaeus met a new benefactor,Olof Celsius, who was a professor of theology and an amateur botanist.[39] He received Linnaeus into his home and allowed him use of his library, which was one of the richest botanical libraries in Sweden.[40]
In 1729, Linnaeus wrote a thesis,Praeludia Sponsaliorum Plantarum onplant sexual reproduction. This attracted the attention of Rudbeck; in May 1730, he selected Linnaeus to give lectures at the University although the young man was only a second-year student. His lectures were popular, and Linnaeus often addressed an audience of 300 people.[41] In June, Linnaeus moved from Celsius's house to Rudbeck's to become the tutor of the three youngest of his 24 children. His friendship with Celsius did not wane and they continued their botanical expeditions.[42] Over that winter, Linnaeus began to doubt Tournefort's system of classification and decided to create one of his own. His plan was to divide the plants by the number ofstamens andpistils. He began writing several books, which would later result in, for example,Genera Plantarum andCritica Botanica. He also produced a book on the plants grown in theUppsala Botanical Garden,Adonis Uplandicus.[43]
Rudbeck's former assistant,Nils Rosén, returned to the University in March 1731 with a degree in medicine. Rosén started giving anatomy lectures and tried to take over Linnaeus's botany lectures, but Rudbeck prevented that. Until December, Rosén tutored Linnaeus privately in medicine. In December, Linnaeus had a "disagreement" with Rudbeck's wife and had to move out of his mentor's house; his relationship with Rudbeck did not appear to suffer. That Christmas, Linnaeus returned home to Stenbrohult to visit his parents for the first time in about three years. His mother had disapproved of his failing to become a priest, but she was pleased to learn he was teaching at the University.[43][44]
During a visit with his parents, Linnaeus told them about his plan to travel toLapland; Rudbeck had made the journey in 1695, but the detailed results of his exploration were lost in a fire seven years afterwards. Linnaeus's hope was to find new plants, animals and possibly valuable minerals. He was also curious about the customs of the nativeSami people, reindeer-herding nomads who wandered Scandinavia's vast tundras. In April 1732, Linnaeus was awarded a grant from theRoyal Society of Sciences in Uppsala for his journey.[45][46]
Wearing the traditional dress of theSami people ofLapland, holding thetwinflower, later known asLinnaea borealis, that became his personal emblem. Martin Hoffman, 1737.
Linnaeus began his expedition from Uppsala on 12 May 1732, just before he turned 25.[47] He travelled on foot and horse, bringing with him his journal, botanical andornithological manuscripts and sheets of paper for pressing plants. NearGävle he found great quantities ofCampanula serpyllifolia, later known asLinnaea borealis, the twinflower that would become his favourite.[48] He sometimes dismounted on the way to examine a flower or rock[49] and was particularly interested inmosses andlichens, the latter a main part of the diet of thereindeer, a common and economically important animal in Lapland.[50]
Linnaeus travelled clockwise around the coast of theGulf of Bothnia, making major inland incursions fromUmeå,Luleå andTornio. He returned from his six-month-long, over 2,000 kilometres (1,200 mi) expedition in October, having gathered and observed many plants, birds and rocks.[51][52][53] Although Lapland was a region with limitedbiodiversity, Linnaeus described about 100 previously unidentified plants. These became the basis of his bookFlora Lapponica.[54][55] However, on the expedition to Lapland, Linnaeus used Latin names to describe organisms because he had not yet developed the binomial system.[47]
InFlora Lapponica Linnaeus's ideas aboutnomenclature andclassification were first used in a practical way, making this the first proto-modernFlora.[56] The account covered 534 species, used the Linnaean classification system and included, for the described species, geographical distribution and taxonomic notes. It wasAugustin Pyramus de Candolle who attributed Linnaeus withFlora Lapponica as the first example in the botanical genre of Flora writing. Botanical historianE. L. Greene describedFlora Lapponica as "the most classic and delightful" of Linnaeus's works.[56]
It was during this expedition that Linnaeus had aflash of insight regarding the classification of mammals. Upon observing the lower jawbone of a horse at the side of a road he was travelling, Linnaeus remarked: "If I only knew how many teeth and of what kind every animal had, how many teats and where they were placed, I should perhaps be able to work out a perfectly natural system for the arrangement of all quadrupeds."[57]
In 1734, Linnaeus led a small group of students toDalarna. Funded by the Governor of Dalarna, the expedition was to catalogue known natural resources and discover new ones, but also to gather intelligence on Norwegian mining activities atRøros.[53]
Years in the Dutch Republic (1735–38)
The Hamburg Hydra, from theThesaurus (1734) ofAlbertus Seba. Linnaeus identified the hydra specimen as a fake in 1735.View ofHartekamp, where Carl von Linné lived and studied for three years, from 1735 until 1738Title page ofMusa Cliffortiana (1736), Linnaeus's first botanical monographTitle page ofHortus Cliffortianus (1737). The work was a collaboration between Linnaeus andGeorg Dionysius Ehret, financed byGeorge Clifford III, one of the directors of theVOC.
Doctorate
Cities where he worked; those outside Sweden were only visited during 1735–1738
His relations with Nils Rosén having worsened, Linnaeus accepted an invitation from Claes Sohlberg, son of a mining inspector, to spend the Christmas holiday inFalun, where Linnaeus was permitted to visit the mines.[58]
In April 1735, at the suggestion of Sohlberg's father, Linnaeus and Sohlberg set out for theDutch Republic, where Linnaeus intended to study medicine at theUniversity of Harderwijk[59] while tutoring Sohlberg in exchange for an annual salary. At the time, it was common for Swedes to pursue doctoral degrees in theNetherlands, then a highly revered place to study natural history.[60]
On the way, the pair stopped inHamburg, where they met the mayor, who proudly showed them a supposed wonder of nature in his possession: thetaxidermied remains of a seven-headedhydra. Linnaeus quickly discovered the specimen was afake, cobbled together from the jaws and paws of weasels and the skins of snakes. The provenance of the hydra suggested to Linnaeus that it had been manufactured by monks to represent theBeast of Revelation. Even at the risk of incurring the mayor's wrath, Linnaeus made his observations public, dashing the mayor's dreams of selling the hydra for an enormous sum. Linnaeus and Sohlberg were forced to flee from Hamburg.[61][62]
Linnaeus began working towards his degree as soon as he reachedHarderwijk, a university known for awarding degrees in as little as a week.[63] He submitted a dissertation, written back in Sweden, entitledDissertatio medica inauguralis in qua exhibetur hypothesis nova de febrium intermittentium causa,[note 3] in which he laid out his hypothesis thatmalaria arose only in areas with clay-rich soils.[64] Although he failed to identify the true source of disease transmission, (i.e., theAnophelesmosquito),[65] he did correctly predict thatArtemisia annua (wormwood) would become a source ofantimalarial medications.[64]
Within two weeks he had completed his oral and practical examinations and was awarded a doctoral degree.[61][63]
That summer Linnaeus reunited withPeter Artedi, a friend from Uppsala with whom he had once made a pact that should either of the two predecease the other, the survivor would finish the decedent's work. Ten weeks later, Artedi drowned in thecanals of Amsterdam, leaving behind an unfinished manuscript on the classification of fish.[66][67]
Publishing ofSystema Naturae
One of the first scientists Linnaeus met in the Netherlands wasJohan Frederik Gronovius, to whom Linnaeus showed one of the several manuscripts he had brought with him from Sweden. The manuscript described a new system for classifying plants. When Gronovius saw it, he was very impressed, and offered to help pay for the printing. With an additional monetary contribution by the Scottish doctorIsaac Lawson, the manuscript was published asSystema Naturae (1735).[68][69]
Linnaeus became acquainted with one of the most respected physicians and botanists in the Netherlands,Herman Boerhaave, who tried to convince Linnaeus to make a career there. Boerhaave offered him a journey to South Africa and America, but Linnaeus declined, stating he would not stand the heat. Instead, Boerhaave convinced Linnaeus that he should visit the botanistJohannes Burman. After his visit, Burman, impressed with his guest's knowledge, decided Linnaeus should stay with him during the winter. During his stay, Linnaeus helped Burman with hisThesaurus Zeylanicus. Burman also helped Linnaeus with the books on which he was working:Fundamenta Botanica andBibliotheca Botanica.[70]
George Clifford, Philip Miller, and Johann Jacob Dillenius
In August 1735, during Linnaeus's stay with Burman, he metGeorge Clifford III, a director of theDutch East India Company and the owner of a rich botanical garden at the estate ofHartekamp inHeemstede. Clifford was very impressed with Linnaeus's ability to classify plants, and invited him to become his physician and superintendent of his garden. Linnaeus had already agreed to stay with Burman over the winter, and could thus not accept immediately. However, Clifford offered to compensate Burman by offering him a copy ofSir Hans Sloane'sNatural History of Jamaica, a rare book, if he let Linnaeus stay with him, and Burman accepted.[71][72] On 24 September 1735, Linnaeus moved to Hartekamp to become personal physician to Clifford, and curator of Clifford's herbarium. He was paid 1,000florins a year, with free board and lodging. Though the agreement was only for a winter of that year, Linnaeus practically stayed there until 1738.[73] It was here that he wrote a bookHortus Cliffortianus, in the preface of which he described his experience as "the happiest time of my life". (A portion of Hartekamp was declared as public garden in April 1956 by the Heemstede local authority, and was named "Linnaeushof".[74] It eventually became, as it is claimed, the biggest playground in Europe.[75])
In July 1736, Linnaeus travelled to England, at Clifford's expense.[76] He went to London to visit Sir Hans Sloane, a collector of natural history, and to see hiscabinet,[77] as well as to visit theChelsea Physic Garden and its keeper,Philip Miller. He taught Miller about his new system of subdividing plants, as described inSystema Naturae. At first, Miller was reluctant to use the newbinomial nomenclature, preferring instead the classifications ofJoseph Pitton de Tournefort andJohn Ray. Nevertheless, Linnaeus applauded Miller'sGardeners Dictionary.[78] The conservative Miller actually retained in his dictionary a number of pre-Linnaean binomial signifiers discarded by Linnaeus but which have been retained by modern botanists. He only fully changed to the Linnaean system in the edition ofThe Gardeners Dictionary of 1768. Miller ultimately was impressed, and from then on started to arrange the garden according to Linnaeus's system.[79]
Linnaeus also travelled to Oxford University to visit the botanistJohann Jacob Dillenius. He failed to make Dillenius publicly fully accept his new classification system, though the two men remained in correspondence for many years afterwards. Linnaeus dedicated hisCritica Botanica to him, as "opus botanicum quo absolutius mundus non-vidit". Linnaeus would later name a genus of tropical tree Dillenia in his honour. He then returned to Hartekamp, bringing with him many specimens of rare plants.[80] The next year, 1737, he publishedGenera Plantarum, in which he described 935genera of plants, and shortly thereafter he supplemented it withCorollarium Generum Plantarum, with another sixty (sexaginta) genera.[81]
His work at Hartekamp led to another book,Hortus Cliffortianus, a catalogue of the botanical holdings in the herbarium and botanical garden of Hartekamp. He wrote it in nine months (completed in July 1737), but it was not published until 1738.[70] It contains the first use of the nameNepenthes, which Linnaeus used to describe a genus ofpitcher plants.[82][note 4]
Linnaeus stayed with Clifford at Hartekamp until 18 October 1737 (new style), when he left the house to return to Sweden. Illness and the kindness of Dutch friends obliged him to stay some months longer in Holland. In May 1738, he set out for Sweden again. On the way home, he stayed in Paris for about a month, visiting botanists such asAntoine de Jussieu. After his return, Linnaeus never again left Sweden.[83][84]
Return to Sweden
Wedding portrait
When Linnaeus returned to Sweden on 28 June 1738, he went toFalun, where he entered into an engagement toSara Elisabeth Moræa. Three months later, he moved to Stockholm to find employment as a physician, and thus to make it possible to support a family.[85][86] Once again, Linnaeus found a patron; he became acquainted withCount Carl Gustav Tessin, who helped him get work as a physician at the Admiralty.[87][88] During this time in Stockholm, Linnaeus helped found theRoyal Swedish Academy of Science; he became the firstPraeses of the academy by drawing of lots.[89]
Because his finances had improved and were now sufficient to support a family, he received permission to marry his fiancée, Sara Elisabeth Moræa. Their wedding was held 26 June 1739. Seventeen months later, Sara gave birth to their first son,Carl. Two years later, a daughter,Elisabeth Christina, was born, and the subsequent year Sara gave birth to Sara Magdalena, who died when 15 days old. Sara and Linnaeus would later have four other children: Lovisa, Sara Christina, Johannes and Sophia.[85][90]
In May 1741, Linnaeus was appointed Professor of Medicine at Uppsala University, first with responsibility for medicine-related matters. Soon, he changed place with the other Professor of Medicine, Nils Rosén, and thus was responsible for the Botanical Garden (which he would thoroughly reconstruct and expand), botany andnatural history, instead. In October that same year, his wife and nine-month-old son followed him to live in Uppsala.[91]
Öland and Gotland
Ten days after he was appointed professor, he undertook an expedition to the island provinces ofÖland andGotland with six students from the university to look for plants useful in medicine. They stayed on Öland until 21 June, then sailed toVisby in Gotland. Linnaeus and the students stayed on Gotland for about a month, and then returned to Uppsala. During this expedition, they found 100 previously unrecorded plants. The observations from the expedition were later published inÖländska och Gothländska Resa, written in Swedish. LikeFlora Lapponica, it contained both zoological and botanical observations, as well as observations concerning the culture in Öland and Gotland.[92][93]
During the summer of 1745, Linnaeus published two more books:Flora Suecica andFauna Suecica.Flora Suecica was a strictly botanical book, whileFauna Suecica waszoological.[85][94]Anders Celsius had created the temperature scalenamed after him in 1742. Celsius's scale was originally inverted compared to the way it is used today, with water boiling at 0 °C and freezing at 100 °C. Linnaeus was the one who inverted the scale to its present usage, in 1745.[95]
Västergötland
In the summer of 1746, Linnaeus was once again commissioned by the Government to carry out an expedition, this time to the Swedish province ofVästergötland. He set out from Uppsala on 12 June and returned on 11 August. On the expedition his primary companion was Erik Gustaf Lidbeck, a student who had accompanied him on his previous journey. Linnaeus described his findings from the expedition in the bookWästgöta-Resa, published the next year.[92][96] After he returned from the journey, the Government decided Linnaeus should take on another expedition to the southernmost provinceScania. This journey was postponed, as Linnaeus felt too busy.[85]
In the spring of 1749, Linnaeus could finally journey toScania, again commissioned by the government. With him he brought his student Olof Söderberg. On the way to Scania, he made his last visit to his brothers and sisters in Stenbrohult since his father had died the previous year. The expedition was similar to the previous journeys in most aspects, but this time he was also ordered to find the best place to growwalnut andSwedish whitebeam trees; these trees were used by the military to make rifles. While there, they also visited theRamlösa mineral spa, where he remarked on the quality of its ferruginous water.[99] The journey was successful, and Linnaeus's observations were published the next year inSkånska Resa.[100][101]
Rector of Uppsala University
Summer home at his Hammarby estateTheLinnaean Garden in Uppsala
In 1750, Linnaeus became rector of Uppsala University, starting a period where natural sciences were esteemed.[85] Perhaps the most important contribution he made during his time at Uppsala was to teach; many of his students travelled to various places in the world to collect botanical samples. Linnaeus called the best of these students his "apostles".[102] His lectures were normally very popular and were often held in the Botanical Garden. He tried to teach the students to think for themselves and not trust anybody, not even him. Even more popular than the lectures were the botanical excursions made every Saturday during summer, where Linnaeus and his students explored the flora and fauna in the vicinity of Uppsala.[103]
Philosophia Botanica
Linnaeus publishedPhilosophia Botanica in 1751.[104] The book contained a complete survey of the taxonomy system he had been using in his earlier works. It also contained information of how to keep a journal on travels and how to maintain a botanical garden.[105]
Nutrix Noverca
Cover ofNutrix Noverca (1752)
During Linnaeus's time it was normal for upper class women to havewet nurses for their babies. Linnaeus joined an ongoing campaign to end this practice in Sweden and promote breast-feeding by mothers. In 1752 Linnaeus published a thesis along with Frederick Lindberg, a physician student,[106] based on their experiences.[107] In the tradition of the period, this dissertation was essentially an idea of the presiding reviewer (prases) expounded upon by the student. Linnaeus's dissertation was translated into French byJ. E. Gilibert in 1770 asLa Nourrice marâtre, ou Dissertation sur les suites funestes du nourrisage mercénaire. Linnaeus suggested that children might absorb the personality of their wet nurse through the milk. He admired the child care practices of the Lapps[108] and pointed out how healthy their babies were compared to those of Europeans who employed wet nurses. He compared the behaviour of wild animals and pointed out how none of them denied their newborns their breastmilk.[108] It is thought that his activism played a role in his choice of the termMammalia for the class of organisms.[109]
Linnaeus publishedSpecies Plantarum, the work which is now internationally accepted as the starting point of modernbotanical nomenclature, in 1753.[110] The first volume was issued on 24 May, the second volume followed on 16 August of the same year.[note 5][112] The book contained 1,200 pages and was published in two volumes; it described over 7,300 species.[113][114] The same year the king dubbed him knight of theOrder of the Polar Star, the first civilian in Sweden to become a knight in this order. He was then seldom seen not wearing the order's insignia.[115]
Linnaeus felt Uppsala was too noisy and unhealthy, so he bought two farms in 1758: Hammarby and Sävja. The next year, he bought a neighbouring farm, Edeby. He spent the summers with his family at Hammarby; initially it only had a small one-storey house, but in 1762 a new, larger main building was added.[101][116] In Hammarby, Linnaeus made a garden where he could grow plants that could not be grown in the Botanical Garden in Uppsala. He began constructing a museum on a hill behind Hammarby in 1766, where he moved his library and collection of plants. A fire that destroyed about one third of Uppsala and had threatened his residence there necessitated the move.[117]
Since the initial release ofSystema Naturae in 1735, the book had been expanded and reprinted several times; thetenth edition was released in 1758. This edition established itself as the starting point forzoological nomenclature, the equivalent ofSpecies Plantarum.[113][118]
The Swedish King Adolf Frederick granted Linnaeusnobility in 1757, but he was notennobled until 1761. With his ennoblement, he took the name Carl von Linné (Latinised asCarolus a Linné), 'Linné' being a shortened andgallicised version of 'Linnæus', and the Germannobiliary particle 'von' signifying his ennoblement.[3] The noble family'scoat of arms prominently features atwinflower, one of Linnaeus's favourite plants; it was given the scientific nameLinnaea borealis in his honour byGronovius. The shield in the coat of arms is divided into thirds: red, black and green for the three kingdoms of nature (animal, mineral and vegetable) in Linnaean classification; in the centre is an egg "to denote Nature, which is continued and perpetuatedin ovo". At the bottom is a phrase in Latin, borrowed from theAeneid, which reads "Famam extendere factis": we extend our fame by our deeds.[119][120][121] Linnaeus inscribed this personal motto in books that were given to him by friends.[122]
After his ennoblement, Linnaeus continued teaching and writing. In total, he presided at 186 PhD ceremonies, with many of the dissertations written by himself.[123] His reputation had spread over the world, and he corresponded with many different people. For example,Catherine II of Russia sent him seeds from her country.[124] He also corresponded withGiovanni Antonio Scopoli, "the Linnaeus of the Austrian Empire", who was a doctor and a botanist inIdrija,Duchy of Carniola (nowadaysSlovenia).[125] Scopoli communicated all of his research, findings, and descriptions (for example of theolm and thedormouse, two little animals hitherto unknown to Linnaeus). Linnaeus greatly respected Scopoli and showed great interest in his work. He named a solanaceous genus,Scopolia, the source ofscopolamine, after him, but because of the great distance between them, they never met.[126][127]
Linnaeus was relieved of his duties in the Royal Swedish Academy of Science in 1763, but continued his work there as usual for more than ten years after.[85] In 1769 he was elected to theAmerican Philosophical Society for his work.[128] He stepped down as rector at Uppsala University in December 1772, mostly due to his declining health.[84][129]
Linnaeus's last years were troubled by illness. He had had a disease called the Uppsala fever in 1764, but survived due to the care of Rosén. He developedsciatica in 1773, and the next year, he had a stroke which partially paralysed him.[130] He had a second stroke in 1776, losing the use of his right side and leaving him bereft of his memory; while still able to admire his own writings, he could not recognise himself as their author.[131][132]
In December 1777, he had another stroke which greatly weakened him, and eventually led to his death on 10 January 1778 in Hammarby.[133][129] Despite his desire to be buried in Hammarby, he was buried inUppsala Cathedral on 22 January.[134][135]
His library and collections were left to his widow Sara and their children.Joseph Banks, an eminent botanist, wished to purchase the collection, but his son Carl refused the offer and instead moved the collection to Uppsala. In 1783 Carl died and Sara inherited the collection, having outlived both her husband and son. She tried to sell it to Banks, but he was no longer interested; instead an acquaintance of his agreed to buy the collection. The acquaintance was a 24-year-old medical student,James Edward Smith, who bought the whole collection: 14,000 plants, 3,198 insects, 1,564 shells, about 3,000 letters and 1,600 books. Smith founded theLinnean Society of London five years later.[135][136]
The von Linné name ended with his son Carl, who never married.[7] His other son, Johannes, had died aged 3.[137] There are over two hundred descendants of Linnaeus through two of his daughters.[7]
During Linnaeus's time as Professor and Rector of Uppsala University, he taughtmany devoted students, 17 of whom he called "apostles". They were the most promising, most committed students, and all of them made botanical expeditions to various places in the world, often with his help. The amount of this help varied; sometimes he used his influence as Rector to grant his apostles a scholarship or a place on an expedition.[138] To most of the apostles he gave instructions of what to look for on their journeys. Abroad, the apostles collected and organised new plants, animals and minerals according to Linnaeus's system. Most of them also gave some of their collection to Linnaeus when their journey was finished.[139] Thanks to these students, the Linnaean system of taxonomy spread through the world without Linnaeus ever having to travel outside Sweden after his return from Holland.[140] The British botanistWilliam T. Stearn notes, without Linnaeus's new system, it would not have been possible for the apostles to collect and organise so many new specimens.[141] Many of the apostles died during their expeditions.
Early expeditions
Christopher Tärnström, the first apostle and a 43-year-old pastor with a wife and children, made his journey in 1746. He boarded aSwedish East India Company ship headed for China. Tärnström never reached his destination, dying of a tropical fever onCôn Sơn Island the same year. Tärnström's widow blamed Linnaeus for making her children fatherless, causing Linnaeus to prefer sending out younger, unmarried students after Tärnström.[142] Six other apostles later died on their expeditions, includingPehr Forsskål andPehr Löfling.[141]
Two years after Tärnström's expedition, Finnish-bornPehr Kalm set out as the second apostle to North America. There he spent two-and-a-half years studying the flora and fauna of Pennsylvania, New York, New Jersey and Canada. Linnaeus was overjoyed when Kalm returned, bringing back with him many pressed flowers and seeds. At least 90 of the 700 North American species described inSpecies Plantarum had been brought back by Kalm.[143]
Daniel Solander was living in Linnaeus's house during his time as a student in Uppsala. Linnaeus was very fond of him, promising Solander his eldest daughter's hand in marriage. On Linnaeus's recommendation, Solander travelled to England in 1760, where he met the English botanistJoseph Banks. With Banks, Solander joinedJames Cook on his expedition to Oceania on theEndeavour in 1768–71.[144][145] Solander was not the only apostle to journey with James Cook;Anders Sparrman followed on theResolution in 1772–75 bound for, among other places, Oceania and South America. Sparrman made many other expeditions, one of them to South Africa.[146]
Perhaps the most famous and successful apostle wasCarl Peter Thunberg, who embarked on a nine-year expedition in 1770. He stayed in South Africa for three years, then travelled toJapan. All foreigners in Japan were forced to stay on the island ofDejima outsideNagasaki, so it was thus hard for Thunberg to study the flora. He did, however, manage to persuade some of the translators to bring him different plants, and he also found plants in the gardens of Dejima. He returned to Sweden in 1779, one year after Linnaeus's death.[147]
The first edition ofSystema Naturae was printed in the Netherlands in 1735. It was a twelve-page work.[148] By the time it reached its10th edition in 1758, it classified 4,400 species of animals and 7,700 species of plants. People from all over the world sent their specimens to Linnaeus to be included. By the time he started work on the 12th edition, Linnaeus needed a new invention—theindex card—to track classifications.[149]
InSystema Naturae, the unwieldy names mostly used at the time, such as "Physalis annua ramosissima, ramis angulosis glabris, foliis dentato-serratis", were supplemented with concise and now familiar "binomials", composed of the generic name, followed by a specific epithet—in the case given,Physalis angulata. These binomials could serve as a label to refer to the species. Higher taxa were constructed and arranged in a simple and orderly manner. Although the system, now known asbinomial nomenclature, was partially developed by the Bauhin brothers (seeGaspard Bauhin andJohann Bauhin) almost 200 years earlier,[150] Linnaeus was the first to use it consistently throughout the work, including in monospecific genera, and may be said to have popularised it within the scientific community.
After the decline in Linnaeus's health in the early 1770s, publication of editions ofSystema Naturae went in two different directions. Another Swedish scientist,Johan Andreas Murray, issued theRegnum Vegetabile section separately in 1774 as theSystema Vegetabilium, rather confusingly labelled the 13th edition.[151] Meanwhile, a 13th edition of the entireSystema appeared in parts between 1788 and 1793 under the editorship ofJohann Friedrich Gmelin. It was through theSystema Vegetabilium that Linnaeus's work became widely known in England, following its translation from the Latin by theLichfield Botanical Society asA System of Vegetables (1783–1785).[152]
Orbis eruditi judicium de Caroli Linnaei MD scriptis
('Opinion of the learned world on the writings of Carl Linnaeus, Doctor') Published in 1740, this small octavo-sized pamphlet was presented to the State Library of New South Wales by the Linnean Society of NSW in 2018. This is considered among the rarest of all the writings of Linnaeus, and crucial to his career, securing him his appointment to a professorship of medicine at Uppsala University. From this position he laid the groundwork for his radical new theory of classifying and naming organisms for which he was considered the founder of modern taxonomy.
Species Plantarum (or, more fully,Species Plantarum, exhibentes plantas rite cognitas, ad genera relatas, cum differentiis specificis, nominibus trivialibus, synonymis selectis, locis natalibus, secundum systema sexuale digestas) was first published in 1753, as a two-volume work. Its prime importance is perhaps that it is the primary starting point ofplant nomenclature as it exists today.[110]
Genera plantarum: eorumque characteres naturales secundum numerum, figuram, situm, et proportionem omnium fructificationis partium was first published in 1737, delineating plant genera. Around 10 editions were published, not all of them by Linnaeus himself; the most important is the 1754 fifth edition.[153] In it Linnaeus divided the plant Kingdom into 24 classes. One,Cryptogamia, included all the plants with concealed reproductive parts (algae, fungi, mosses and liverworts and ferns).[154]
Philosophia Botanica (1751)[104] was a summary of Linnaeus's thinking on plant classification and nomenclature, and an elaboration of the work he had previously published inFundamenta Botanica (1736) andCritica Botanica (1737). Other publications forming part of his plan to reform the foundations of botany include hisClasses Plantarum andBibliotheca Botanica: all were printed in Holland (as wereGenera Plantarum (1737) andSystema Naturae (1735)), thePhilosophia being simultaneously released in Stockholm.[155]
At the end of his lifetime the Linnean collection inUppsala was considered one of the finest collections of natural history objects in Sweden. Next to his own collection he had also built up a museum for the university of Uppsala, which was supplied by material donated byCarl Gyllenborg (in 1744–1745), crown-princeAdolf Fredrik (in 1745), Erik Petreus (in 1746),Claes Grill (in 1746), Magnus Lagerström (in 1748 and 1750) andJonas Alströmer (in 1749). The relation between the museum and the private collection was not formalised and the steady flow of material from Linnean pupils were incorporated to the private collection rather than to the museum.[156] Linnaeus felt his work was reflecting the harmony of nature and he said in 1754 "the earth is then nothing else but a museum of the all-wise creator's masterpieces, divided into three chambers". He had turned his own estate into a microcosm of that 'world museum'.[157]
In April 1766 parts of the town were destroyed by a fire and the Linnean private collection was subsequently moved to a barn outside the town, and shortly afterwards to a single-room stone building close to hiscountry house at Hammarby near Uppsala. This resulted in a physical separation between the two collections; the museum collection remained in the botanical garden of the university. Some material which needed special care (alcohol specimens) or ample storage space was moved from the private collection to the museum.
In Hammarby the Linnean private collections suffered seriously from damp and the depredations by mice and insects. Carl von Linné's son (Carl Linnaeus) inherited the collections in 1778 and retained them until his own death in 1783. Shortly after Carl von Linné's death his son confirmed that mice had caused "horrible damage" to the plants and that also moths and mould had caused considerable damage.[158] He tried to rescue them from the neglect they had suffered during his father's later years, and also added further specimens. This last activity however reduced rather than augmented the scientific value of the original material.
In 1784 the young medical studentJames Edward Smith purchased the entire specimen collection, library, manuscripts, and correspondence of Carl Linnaeus from his widow and daughter and transferred the collections to London.[159][160] Not all material in Linné's private collection was transported to England. Thirty-three fish specimens preserved in alcohol were not sent and were later lost.[161]
In London Smith tended to neglect the zoological parts of the collection; he added some specimens and also gave some specimens away.[162] Over the following centuries the Linnean collection in London suffered enormously at the hands of scientists who studied the collection, and in the process disturbed the original arrangement and labels, added specimens that did not belong to the original series and withdrew precious original type material.[158]
Much material which had been intensively studied by Linné in his scientific career belonged to the collection ofQueen Lovisa Ulrika (1720–1782) (in the Linnean publications referred to as "Museum Ludovicae Ulricae" or "M. L. U."). This collection was donated by her grandsonKing Gustav IV Adolf (1778–1837) to the museum in Uppsala in 1804. Another important collection in this respect was that of her husbandKing Adolf Fredrik (1710–1771) (in the Linnean sources known as "Museum Adolphi Friderici" or "Mus. Ad. Fr."), the wet parts (alcohol collection) of which were later donated to theRoyal Swedish Academy of Sciences, and is today housed in theSwedish Museum of Natural History atStockholm. The dry material was transferred to Uppsala.[156]
System of taxonomy
Table of the Animal Kingdom (Regnum Animale) from the 1st edition ofSystema Naturæ (1735)
The establishment of universally accepted conventions for the naming of organisms was Linnaeus's main contribution to taxonomy—his work marks the starting point of consistent use of binomial nomenclature.[163] During the 18th century expansion of natural history knowledge, Linnaeus also developed what became known as theLinnaean taxonomy; the system ofscientific classification now widely used in thebiological sciences. A previous zoologistRumphius (1627–1702) had more or less approximated the Linnaean system and his material contributed to the later development of the binomial scientific classification by Linnaeus.[164]
The Linnaean system classified nature within anested hierarchy, starting with threekingdoms. Kingdoms were divided into classes and they, in turn, into orders, and thence into genera (singular: genus), which were divided into species (singular: species).[165] Below the rank of species he sometimes recognised taxa of a lower (unnamed)rank; these have since acquired standardised names such asvariety in botany andsubspecies in zoology. Modern taxonomy includes a rank offamily between order and genus and a rank ofphylum between kingdom and class that were not present in Linnaeus's original system.[166]
Linnaeus's groupings were based upon shared physical characteristics, and not based upon differences.[166] Of his higher groupings, only those for animals are still in use, and the groupings themselves have been significantly changed since their conception, as have the principles behind them. Nevertheless, Linnaeus is credited with establishing the idea of a hierarchical structure of classification which is based upon observable characteristics and intended to reflect natural relationships.[163][167] While the underlying details concerning what are considered to be scientifically valid "observable characteristics" have changed with expanding knowledge (for example,DNA sequencing, unavailable in Linnaeus's time, has proven to be a tool of considerable utility for classifying living organisms and establishing theirevolutionary relationships), the fundamental principle remains sound.
Linnaeus's system of taxonomy was especially noted as the first to include humans (Homo) taxonomically grouped with apes (Simia), under the header ofAnthropomorpha.German biologistErnst Haeckel speaking in 1907 noted this as the "most important sign of Linnaeus's genius".[168]
Linnaeus classified humans among theprimates beginning with the first edition ofSystema Naturae.[169] During his time at Hartekamp, he had the opportunity to examine severalmonkeys and noted similarities between them and man.[170] He pointed out both species basically have the same anatomy; except for speech, he found no other differences.[171][note 6] Thus he placed man and monkeys under the same category,Anthropomorpha, meaning "manlike".[172] This classification received criticism from other biologists such asJohan Gottschalk Wallerius,Jacob Theodor Klein andJohann Georg Gmelin on the ground that it is illogical to describe man as human-like.[173] In a letter to Gmelin from 1747, Linnaeus replied:[174][note 7]
It does not please [you] that I've placed Man among the Anthropomorpha, perhaps because of the term 'with human form',[note 8] but man learns to know himself. Let's not quibble over words. It will be the same to me whatever name we apply. But I seek from you and from the whole world a generic difference between man and simian that [follows] from the principles of Natural History.[note 9] I absolutely know of none. If only someone might tell me a single one! If I would have called man a simian or vice versa, I would have brought together all the theologians against me. Perhaps I ought to have by virtue of the law of the discipline.
Detail from the sixth edition ofSystema Naturae (1748) describingAnt[h]ropomorpha with a division betweenHomo andSimia
The theological concerns were twofold: first, putting man at the same level as monkeys or apes would lower the spiritually higher position that man was assumed to have in thegreat chain of being, and second, because the Bible says man was created in theimage of God (theomorphism), if monkeys/apes and humans were not distinctly and separately designed, that would mean monkeys and apes were created in the image of God as well. This was something many could not accept.[175] The conflict betweenworld views that was caused by asserting man was a type of animal would simmer for a century until the much greater, and still ongoing,creation–evolution controversy began in earnest with the publication ofOn the Origin of Species byCharles Darwin in 1859.
After such criticism, Linnaeus felt he needed to explain himself more clearly. The 10th edition ofSystema Naturae introduced new terms, includingMammalia andPrimates, the latter of which would replaceAnthropomorpha[176] as well as giving humans the full binomialHomo sapiens.[177] The new classification received less criticism, but many natural historians still believed he had demoted humans from their former place of ruling over nature and not being a part of it. Linnaeus believed that man biologically belongs to the animal kingdom and had to be included in it.[178] In his bookDieta Naturalis, he said, "One should not vent one's wrath on animals, Theology decree that man has asoul and that the animals are mere 'automata mechanica', but I believe they would be better advised that animals have a soul and that the difference is of nobility."[179]
Anthropomorpha, from the 1760 dissertation by C. E. Hoppius[180] 1. Troglodyta Bontii, 2. Lucifer Aldrovandi, 3. Satyrus Tulpii, 4. Pygmaeus Edwardi
Linnaeus added a second species to the genusHomo inSystema Naturae based on a figure and description byJacobus Bontius from a 1658 publication:Homo troglodytes ("caveman")[181][182] and published a third in 1771:Homo lar.[183] Swedish historianGunnar Broberg states that the new human species Linnaeus described were actually simians or native people clad in skins to frighten colonial settlers, whose appearance had been exaggerated in accounts to Linnaeus.[184] ForHomo troglodytes Linnaeus asked theSwedish East India Company to search for one, but they did not find any signs of its existence.[185]Homo lar has since been reclassified asHylobates lar, thelar gibbon.[186]
In the first edition ofSystema Naturae, Linnaeus subdivided the human species into fourvarieties: "Europæus albesc[ens]" (whitish European), "Americanus rubesc[ens]" (reddish American), "Asiaticus fuscus" (tawny Asian) and "Africanus nigr[iculus]" (blackish African).[187][188]In the tenth edition of Systema Naturae he further detailed phenotypical characteristics for each variety, based on the concept of thefour temperaments fromclassical antiquity,[189][dubious –discuss] and changed the description of Asians' skin tone to "luridus" (yellow).[190] While Linnaeus believed that these varieties resulted from environmental differences between the four knowncontinents,[191] theLinnean Society acknowledges that his categorization's focus onskin color and later inclusion ofcultural and behavioral traits cementedcolonial stereotypes and provided the foundations forscientific racism.[192]Additionally, Linnaeus created awastebasket taxon "monstrosus" for "wild and monstrous humans, unknown groups, and more or less abnormal people".[193]
Linnaeus's applied science was inspired not only by the instrumental utilitarianism general to the early Enlightenment, but also by his adherence to the older economic doctrine ofCameralism.[197] Additionally, Linnaeus was a state interventionist. He supported tariffs, levies, export bounties, quotas, embargoes, navigation acts, subsidised investment capital, ceilings on wages, cash grants, state-licensed producer monopolies, and cartels.[198]
Linnaeus wrote a description of himself in his autobiographyEgenhändiga anteckningar af Carl Linnæus om sig sjelf: med anmärkningar och tillägg, which was published by his studentAdam Afzelius in 1823:
Linnaeus was not big, not small, thin, brown-eyed, light, hasty, walked quickly, did everything promptly, could not stand lateness; was quickly moved, sensitive, worked continuously; could not spare himself. He enjoyed good food, drank good drinks; but was never inebriated by them. He cared little for appearance, believed that the man should embellish the clothes and not vice versa. He was certainly not argumentative, so he never answered those who wrote against him, and said: If I am wrong, I will not win and if I am right, I will be shown to be right as long as Nature exists.[202]
Linnaeus ... was the most eminent naturalist of his time, a wide observer, a close thinker; but the atmosphere in which he lived and moved and had his being was saturated with biblical theology, and this permeated all his thinking. ... Toward the end of his life he timidly advanced the hypothesis that all the species of one genus constituted at the creation one species; and from the last edition of hisSystema Naturæ he quietly left out the strongly orthodox statement of the fixity of each species, which he had insisted upon in his earlier works. ... warnings came speedily both from the Catholic and Protestant sides.[203]
The mathematicalPageRank algorithm, applied to 24 multilingual Wikipedia editions in 2014, published inPLOS ONE in 2015, placed Carl Linnaeus at the top historical figure, aboveJesus,Aristotle,Napoleon, andAdolf Hitler (in that order).[204][205]
In the 21st century,Linnæus's taxonomy of human "races" has been criticized. Some claim that Linnæus was one of the forebears of the modern pseudoscientific notion ofscientific racism, while others hold the view that while his classification was stereotyped, it did not imply that certain human "races" were superior to others.[206][207][208][209][210]
Linnaeus, Carl; Hendrik Engel; Maria Sara Johanna Engel-Ledeboer (1964) [1735].Systema Naturae (facsimile of the 1st ed.). Nieuwkoop, Netherlands: B. de Graaf.OCLC460298195.
^ICZN Chapter 16, Article 72.4.1.1Archived 8 June 2011 at theWayback Machine – "For a nominal species or subspecies established before 2000, any evidence, published or unpublished, may be taken into account to determine what specimens constitute the type series." and Article 73.1.2 – "If the nominal species-group taxon is based on a single specimen, either so stated or implied in the original publication, that specimen is the holotype fixed by monotypy (see Recommendation 73F). If the taxon was established before 2000 evidence derived from outside the work itself may be taken into account [Art. 72.4.1.1] to help identify the specimen."
^That is,Inaugural thesis in medicine, in which a new hypothesis on the cause of intermittent fevers is presented
^"If this is not Helen'sNepenthes, it certainly will be for all botanists. What botanist would not be filled with admiration if, after a long journey, he should find this wonderful plant. In his astonishment past ills would be forgotten when beholding this admirable work of the Creator!" (translated from Latin byHarry Veitch)
^The date of issue of both volumes was later, for practical purposes, arbitrarily set on 1 May, see Stearn, W. T. (1957), The preparation of theSpecies Plantarum and the introduction of binomial nomenclature, in: Species Plantarum, A Facsimile of the first edition, London, Ray Society: 72 and ICN (Melbourne Code)[111] Art. 13.4 Note 1: "The two volumes of Linnaeus' Species plantarum, ed. 1 (1753), which appeared in May and August, 1753, respectively, are treated as having been published simultaneously on 1 May 1753."
^Frängsmyret al. (1983), p. 167, quotes Linnaeus explaining the real difference would necessarily be absent from his classification system, as it was not amorphological characteristic:"I well know what a splendidly great difference there is [between] a man and abestia [literally, "beast"; that is, a non-human animal] when I look at them from a point of view ofmorality. Man is the animal which theCreator has seen fit to honor with such a magnificentmind and has condescended to adopt as his favorite and for which he has prepared a nobler life". See alsobooks.google.com in which Linnaeus cites the significant capacity to reason as the distinguishing characteristic of humans.
^Others who followed were more inclined to give humans a special place in classification;Johann Friedrich Blumenbach in the first edition of hisManual of Natural History (1779), proposed that the primates be divided into theQuadrumana (four-handed, i.e. apes and monkeys) andBimana (two-handed, i.e. humans). This distinction was taken up by other naturalists, most notablyGeorges Cuvier. Some elevated the distinction to the level oforder. However, the many affinities between humans and other primates—and especially the great apes—made it clear that the distinction made no scientific sense.Charles Darwin wrote, inThe Descent of Man in 1871:
The greater number of naturalists who have taken into consideration the whole structure of man, including his mental faculties, have followedBlumenbach andCuvier, and have placed man in a separate Order, under the title of the Bimana, and therefore on an equality with the orders of the Quadrumana, Carnivora, etc. Recently many of our best naturalists have recurred to the view first propounded by Linnaeus, so remarkable for his sagacity, and have placed man in the same Order with the Quadrumana, under the title of the Primates. The justice of this conclusion will be admitted: for in the first place, we must bear in mind the comparative insignificance for classification of the great development of the brain in man, and that the strongly marked differences between the skulls of man and the Quadrumana (lately insisted upon byBischoff,Aeby, and others) apparently follow from their differently developed brains. In the second place, we must remember that nearly all the other and more important differences between man and the Quadrumana are manifestly adaptive in their nature, and relate chiefly to the erect position of man; such as the structure of his hand, foot, and pelvis, the curvature of his spine, and the position of his head.
^Egerton, Frank N. (2007). "A History of the Ecological Sciences, Part 23: Linnaeus and the Economy of Nature".Bulletin of the Ecological Society of America.88 (1):72–88.doi:10.1890/0012-9623(2007)88[72:AHOTES]2.0.CO;2.
^Carl von Linnés betydelse såsom naturforskare och läkare : skildringar utgifna af Kungl. Vetenskapsakademien i anledning af tvåhundraårsdagen af Linnés födelse (sourceArchived 24 February 2021 at theWayback Machine)
^Non erit Lexicon Hortulanorum, sed etiam Botanicorum, that the book will be, not just a lexicon of gardeners, but of botanists."; noted in Paterson 1986:40–41.
^Tönz, Otmar (2006). "Breastfeeding in modern and ancient times: Facts, ideas and beliefs". In Koletzko, Berthold; Michaelsen, K. F.; Hernell, Olle (eds.).Short and Long Term Effects of Breast Feeding on Child Health. Springer. p. 12.
^Jardine, William, ed. (1865)."Anecdotes of Linnaeus".The Naturalist's Library. Volume VI. Ornithology. Humming birds, Part I. London: Chatto & Windus. p. v.
^Scopoli, Giovanni Antonio.Joannes A. Scopoli-Carl Linnaeus. Dopisovanje/Correspondence 1760–1775, ed. Darinka Soban. Ljubljana: Slovenian Natural history society.
^Bell, Whitfield J., and Charles Greifenstein, Jr. Patriot-Improvers: Biographical Sketches of Members of the American Philosophical Society. 3 vols. Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society, 1997, 3:145–147.
^abWallin, L. 2001.Archived 27 October 2012 at theWayback Machine Catalogue of type specimens. 4. Linnaean specimens. – pp. [1], 1–128. Uppsala. (Uppsala University, Museum of Evolution, Zoology Section).
^Lisbet Koerner, "Carl Linnaeus in his Time and Place", in Cultures of Natural History, ed. Nicholas Jardine,James A. Secord, and Emma C. Spary (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995), pp. 145–162.
^abDance, S.P. 1967. Report on the Linnaean shell collection. – Proceedings of the Linnean Society of London 178 (1): 1–24, Pl. 1–10.
^Wallin, Lars (14 February 2001)."Catalogue of type specimens. 4"(PDF).Uppsala University Museum of Evolution Zoology Section (6): 4. Archived fromthe original(PDF) on 27 October 2012. Retrieved25 February 2019.
^Examples are evident in thePortland catalogue p. 76 Lot 1715 and p. 188 Lot 3997.Archived 18 October 2019 at theWayback Machine "A catalogue of the Portland Museum, lately the property of the Duchess Dowager of Portland, deceased: Which will be sold by auction by Mr. Skinner and Co. On Monday the 24th of April, 1786, and the thirty-seven following days (...) at her late dwelling-house, in Privy-Garden, Whitehall, by order of the Acting Executrix." – pp. i–viii [= 1–8], 3–194, pl. [1]. [London]. (Skinner).
^Monk, K.A.; Fretes, Y.; Reksodiharjo-Lilley, G. (1996).The Ecology of Nusa Tenggara and Maluku. Hong Kong: Periplus Editions Ltd. p. 4.ISBN978-962-593-076-3.
^In later editions the naming was changed from whitish, reddish, tawny, blackish to white (albus), red (rufus), pale yellow (luridus), and black (niger). Staffan Müller-Wille "Linnaeus and the Four Corners of the World", in The Cultural Politics of Blood, 1500–1900, ed. Ralph Bauer, Kim Coles, Zit Nines, and Carla Peterson, 191–209 (Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire, UK: Palgrave, 2015[5]Archived 24 June 2020 at theWayback Machine
^Spamer, Earle E. (1999). "Know Thyself: Responsible Science and the Lectotype ofHomo sapiens Linnaeus, 1758".Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia.149:109–114.JSTOR4065043.
^Mazzolini, Renato G. (2014) Skin Color and the Origin of Physical Anthropology. in: Reproduction, Race, and Gender in Philosophy and the Early Life Sciences. Ed. Susanne Lettow.
^Kennedy, Kenneth A.R. (1976), "Human Variation in Space and Time". Wm. C. Brown Company, p. 25. Kennedy writes that while"Linnaeus was the first to use biological traits as a basis for further subdivisions of the species into varieties. It would be unfair to ascribe racist motives to this effort."
Braziel, Jana Evans (2007). "Genre, race, erasure: a genealogical critique of "American" autobiography". In Joseph A. Young and Jana Evans Braziel (ed.).Erasing Public Memory: Race, Aesthetics, and Cultural Amnesia in the Americas. Mercer University Press. pp. 35–70.ISBN978-0-88146-076-6.
Fries, Theodor Magnus (2011) [1923]. Jackson, Benjamin Daydon (ed.).Linnaeus. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.ISBN978-1-108-03723-5.
Frodin, D.G. (2001)."The evolution of floras".Guide to Standard Floras of the World: an Annotated, Geographically Arranged Systematic Bibliography of the Principal Floras, Enumerations, Checklists, and Chorological Atlases of Different Areas (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 24–51.ISBN978-0-521-79077-2.
Reveal, James L.; Pringle, James S. (1993). "7. Taxonomic Botany and Floristics".Flora of North America. Vol. 1. New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press.ISBN978-0-19-505713-3.
Stafleu, Frans A. (1971).Linnaeus and the Linnaeans: the Spreading of their Ideas in Systematic Botany, 1735–1789. Utrecht: International Association for Plant Taxonomy.ISBN978-90-6046-064-1.
Windelspecht, Michael (2002).Groundbreaking Scientific Experiments, Inventions, and Discoveries of the 17th century. Greenwood Publishing Group.ISBN978-0-313-31501-5.
Edward Lee Greene (1912).Carolus Linnaeus. Philadelphia: Christopher Sower Company.Archived from the original on 8 July 2017. Retrieved13 January 2018.
Lys de Bray (2001).The Art of Botanical Illustration: A history of classic illustrators and their achievements. London: Quantum Publishing Ltd. pp. 62–71.ISBN978-1-86160-425-5.
George, Sam (June 2005). "'Not Strictly Proper for a Female Pen': Eighteenth-Century Poetry and the Sexuality of Botany".Comparative Critical Studies.2 (2):191–210.doi:10.3366/ccs.2005.2.2.191.
Sverker Sörlin; Otto Fagerstedt (2004).Linné och hans apostlar (in Swedish). Stockholm: Natur & Kultur/Fakta.ISBN978-91-27-35590-3.
Albers, Lucia (1982). "Linnaeus' verblijf op de Hartekamp".Het Landgoed de Hartekamp in Heemstede (in Dutch). Heemstede: Vereniging Oud-Heemstede-Bennebroek.ISBN978-90-70712-01-3.
Lars Hansen, ed. (2007–2011).The Linnaeus Apostles – Global Science & Adventure. 8 vols. 11 books. London & Whitby: The IK Foundation & Company.ISBN978-1-904145-26-4.
The15 March 2007 issue ofNature featured a picture of Linnaeus on the cover with the heading "Linnaeus's Legacy" and devoted a substantial portion to items related to Linnaeus and Linnaean taxonomy.
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