The nameCaribbean derives from theCaribs, one of the region's dominant native people at the time ofEurope and contact during the late15th century. AfterChristopher Columbus landed inThe Bahamas in 1492 and later discovered some of the islands in the Caribbean, the Spanish termAntillas applied to the lands; stemming from this, theSea of the Antilles became a common alternative name for the "Caribbean Sea" in various European languages. Spanish dominance in the region remained undisputed during the first century of European colonization.[citation needed]
From the 16th century,Europeans visiting the Caribbean region distinguished the"South Sea" (the Pacific Ocean south of theisthmus of Panama) from the "North Sea" (the Caribbean Sea north of the same isthmus).[5]
The Caribbean Sea had been unknown to the populations ofEurasia until after 1492, when Christopher Columbus sailed into Caribbean waters to find a sea route to Asia. At that time, theAmericas were generally unknown to most Europeans, althoughthey had been visited in the 10th century by theVikings. After Columbus's discovery of the islands, the area was quickly colonized by several Western cultures (initiallySpain, then laterEngland, theDutch Republic,France,Courland andDenmark). After colonization of the Caribbean islands, the Caribbean Sea became a busy area for European-based marine trading and transports. The commerce eventually attractedpirates such asSamuel Bellamy andBlackbeard.[citation needed]
Eastern limits. FromPoint San Diego (Puerto Rico) northward along the meridian thereof (65°39′W) to the 100-fathom line, thence eastward and southward, in such a manner that all islands, shoals and narrow waters of theLesser Antilles are included in the Caribbean Sea as far as but not including Trinidad. From beforeTrinidad to Baja Point (9°32′N61°0′W / 9.533°N 61.000°W /9.533; -61.000) inVenezuela.
Although Trinidad and Tobago andBarbados are on the same continental shelf, they are considered to be in theAtlantic Ocean rather than in the Caribbean Sea.[7]
The geological age of the Caribbean Sea is estimated to be 160 million to 180 million years and was formed by a horizontal fracture inPangaea that split thesupercontinent in theMesozoic Era.[10] It is assumed the proto-Caribbean basin existed in theDevonian period and, in the earlyCarboniferous movement ofGondwana to the north and its convergence with theEuramerica basin, decreased in size. The next stage of the Caribbean Sea's formation began in theTriassic. Powerfulrifting led to the formation of narrow troughs, stretching from modernNewfoundland to theGulf of Mexico's west coast, formingsiliciclasticsedimentary rocks.
During theCretaceous, the Caribbean acquired a shape close to today's. In the earlyPaleogene, due tomarine regression, the Caribbean became separated from theGulf of Mexico and theAtlantic Ocean by the lands ofCuba andHaiti. The Caribbean remained like this for most of theCenozoic until theHolocene, when rising water levels of the oceans restored communication with the Atlantic Ocean.
The Caribbean's floor is composed of suboceanicsediments ofdeep red clay in the deep basins and troughs. On continental slopes and ridges,calcareoussilts are found.Clay minerals have likely been deposited by the mainland riverOrinoco and theMagdalena River. Deposits on the bottom of the Caribbean Sea and the Gulf of Mexico have thicknesses of about 1 km (0.62 mi). Upper sedimentary layers relate to the period from theMesozoic to theCenozoic (250 million years ago) and the lower layers from thePaleozoic to theMesozoic.
Caribbean plate tectonics
The Caribbeanseafloor is divided into fivebasins (the Yucatan, Cayman, Colombian, Venezuelan and Grenada Basins) separated from one another by underwater ridges and mountain ranges (the Cayman Ridge, the Nicaraguan Rise, the Beata Ridge and the Aves Ridge). Atlantic Ocean water enters the Caribbean through theAnegada Passage between theLesser Antilles and theVirgin Islands and theWindward Passage betweenCuba andHaiti.
TheYucatán Channel between Mexico and Cuba links theGulf of Mexico with the Caribbean. The deepest points of the sea lie inCayman Trough, with depths reaching approximately 7,686 m (25,220 ft). Despite that, the Caribbean Sea is considered a relatively shallow sea compared with other bodies of water. The pressure of theSouth American Plate to the east of the Caribbean causes the region of theLesser Antilles to have high volcanic activity, and a very serious eruption ofMount Pelée in 1902 caused many casualties.
The Caribbean seafloor is also the home of twooceanic trenches: theCayman Trench and thePuerto Rico Trench, which put the area at a high risk ofearthquakes. Underwater earthquakes pose a threat of generatingtsunamis, which could have devastating effects on the Caribbean islands. Scientific data reveals that during the past 500 years, the area has seen a dozen earthquakes above 7.5 magnitude.[11] Most recently, a 7.1-magnitude earthquake struck Haiti, on January 12, 2010.
Thehydrology of the sea has a high level of homogeneity. Annual variations in monthly average water temperatures at the surface do not exceed 3 °C (5.4 °F). In the past 50 years, the Caribbean has gone through three stages: cooling until 1974, a cold phase with peaks during 1974–1976 and 1984–1986, and, finally, a warming phase with an increase in temperature of 0.6 °C (1.1 °F) per year. Virtually all temperature extremes were associated with the phenomena ofEl Niño andLa Niña. Thesalinity of the seawater is about 3.6%, and itsdensity is 1,023.5–1,024.0 kg/m3 (63.90–63.93 lb/cu ft). The surface water color isblue-green togreen.
The Caribbean's depth in its wider basins and deep-water temperatures are similar to those of the Atlantic Ocean. Atlantic deepwater is thought to spill into the Caribbean and contribute to the general deepwater of its sea.[12] The surface water (30 m; 100 ft) acts as an extension of the northern Atlantic as theGuiana Current and part of theNorth Equatorial Current enter the sea on the east. On the western side of the sea, thetrade winds influence a northerly current, which causes anupwelling and a rich fishery nearYucatán.[13]
The Caribbean is the home of about 9% of the world'scoral reefs, covering about 50,000 km2 (19,000 sq mi), most of which are located off the Caribbean islands and theCentral American coast.[14] Among them, theBelize Barrier Reef stands out, with an area of 963 km2 (372 sq mi), which was declared aWorld Heritage Site in 1996. It forms part of theGreat Mayan Reef (also known as theMBRS) and, being more than 1,000 km (600 mi) in length, is the world's second longest. It runs along the Caribbean coasts ofMexico,Belize,Guatemala andHonduras.
Since 2005, unusually warm Caribbean waters have been increasinglythreatening the coral reefs. Coral reefs support some of the most diverse marine habitats in the world, but they are fragile ecosystems. When tropical waters become unusually warm for extended periods of time, microscopic plants calledzooxanthellae, which aresymbiotic partners living within the coralpolyp tissues, die off. These plants provide food for the corals and give them their color. The result of the death and dispersal of these tiny plants is calledcoral bleaching and can lead to the devastation of large areas of reef. More than 42% of corals are completely bleached, and 95% are experiencing some type of whitening.[15] Historically, the Caribbean is thought to contain 14% of the world's coral reefs.[16]
The habitats supported by the reefs are critical to such tourist activities asfishing andscuba diving, and they provide an annual economic value to Caribbean nations ofUS$3.1–4.6 billion. Continued destruction of the reefs could severely damage the region's economy.[17] TheConvention for the Protection and Development of the Marine Environment of the Wider Caribbean Region came into effect in 1986 to protect the various endangered marine life of the Caribbean by forbidding human activities that would advance the continued destruction of such marine life in various areas. Currently, the convention has beenratified by 15 countries.[18] Several charitable organizations have formed to preserve Caribbean marine life, such asSea Turtle Conservancy, which seeks to study and protectsea turtles while educating about them.[19]
In 2012, the Institute of Marine Sciences and Limnology of theNational Autonomous University of Mexico conducted a regional study funded by the Department of Technical Cooperation of theInternational Atomic Energy Agency, in which specialists from 11 Latin American countries (Colombia, Costa Rica, Cuba, the Dominican Republic, Guatemala, Haiti, Honduras, Mexico, Nicaragua, Panama, and Venezuela) plus Jamaica participated. The study's findings indicate that heavy metals such as mercury, arsenic, and lead have been identified in the coastal zone of the Caribbean Sea. Analysis of toxic metals and hydrocarbons is based on investigation of coastal sediments that have accumulated less than 50 meters deep during the past 150 years. Project results were presented in Vienna at the forum "Water Matters", and the 2011 General Conference of that multilateral organization.[20]
After the Mediterranean Sea, the Caribbean Sea is the second-most-polluted sea. Pollution in the form of up to 300,000 tonnes of solid garbage dumped into the Caribbean Sea each year is progressively endangering marine ecosystems, wiping out species, and harming the livelihoods of local people, who rely primarily on tourism and fishing.[21][22][23][24]
The average sea surface temperatures for the Caribbean Atlantic Ocean, 25–27 August 2005.[25]Hurricane Katrina is seen just aboveCuba.
The climate of the Caribbean is driven by the low latitude and tropical ocean currents that run through it. The principal ocean current is theNorth Equatorial Current, which enters the region from the tropicalAtlantic. The climate of the area istropical, varying fromtropical rainforest in some areas totropical savanna in others. There are also some locations that arearid climates with considerable drought in some years.
Rainfall varies with elevation, size, and water currents. Cool upwelling keep theABC islands arid. Warm, moisttrade winds blow consistently from the east, creating both rainforest and semi-arid climates across the region. The tropical rainforest climates include lowland areas near the Caribbean Sea fromCosta Rica north toBelize, and theDominican Republic andPuerto Rico.[26]
Tropical cyclones are a threat to the nations that rim the Caribbean Sea. While landfalls are infrequent, the resulting loss of life and property damage makes them a significant hazard to life in the Caribbean. Tropical cyclones that impact the Caribbean often develop off the West coast ofAfrica and make their way west across the Atlantic Ocean toward the Caribbean, while other storms develop in the Caribbean itself. The Caribbean hurricane season lasts from June to November, with the majority of hurricanes occurring during August and September. On average, around nine tropical storms form each year, with five reaching hurricane strength. According to theNational Hurricane Center 385 hurricanes occurred in the Caribbean between 1494 and 1900.
In shallow waterflora andfauna is concentrated aroundcoral reefs where there is little variation in water temperature, purity and salinity. Leeward sides oflagoons provide areas of growth forsea grasses. Turtle grass (Thalassia testudinum) is common in the Caribbean as is manatee grass (Syringodium filiforme) which can grow together as well as in fields of single species at depths up to 20 m (66 ft). Another type shoal grass (Halodule wrightii) grows on sand and mud surfaces at depths of up to 5 m (16 ft).
The Caribbean region has seen a significant increase in human activity since the colonization period. The sea is one of the largest oil production areas in the world, producing approximately 170 milliontons[clarification needed] per year.[34] The area also generates a large fishing industry for the surrounding countries, accounting for 500,000 tonnes (490,000 long tons; 550,000 short tons) of fish a year.[35]
Human activity in the area accounts for a significant amount ofpollution. In 1993, it was estimated that only about 10% of the sewage from the Central American and Caribbean Island countries was properly treated before being released into the sea.[34]
The region has been famous for its rum production - the drink is first mentioned in records from Barbados in around 1650, although it was likely to have been produced beforehand across the other islands.[36]
The Caribbean region supports a largetourism industry. TheCaribbean Tourism Organization calculates that about 12 million people a year visit the area, including (in 1991–1992) about 8 million cruise ship tourists. Tourism based uponscuba diving andsnorkeling oncoral reefs of many Caribbean islands makes a major contribution to their economies.[37]
^National Geophysical Data Center, 1999. Global Land One-kilometer Base Elevation (GLOBE) v.1. Hastings, D. and P.K. Dunbar.National Geophysical Data Center, NOAAArchived 2011-02-10 at theWayback Machine. doi:10.7289/V52R3PMS [access date: 2015-03-16]
^Amante, C. and B.W. Eakins, 2009. ETOPO1 1 Arc-Minute Global Relief Model: Procedures, Data Sources and Analysis. NOAA Technical Memorandum NESDIS NGDC-24.National Geophysical Data Center, NOAA . doi:10.7289/V5C8276M [access date: 2015-03-18].
^Iturralde-Vinent, Manuel (2004), The first inhabitants of the Caribbean, Cuban Science Network. URL accessed on 28/07/2007
Wood, Robert E. "Caribbean cruise tourism: Globalization at sea."Annals of tourism research 27.2 (2000): 345–370.
Woodring, Wendell Phillips. "Caribbean land and sea through the ages."Geological Society of America Bulletin 65.8 (1954): 719–732. GSA Bulletin (1954) 65 (8): 719–732.doi:10.1130/0016-7606(1954)65[719:CLASTT]2.0.CO
Reefs at Risk in the Caribbean: Economic Valuation Methodology, World Resources Institute 2007.
†Physiographically, thesecontinental islands are not part of the volcanic Windward Islands arc, although sometimes grouped with them culturally and politically.
#Bermuda is an isolatedNorth Atlanticoceanic island, physiographically not part of the Lucayan Archipelago, Antilles, Caribbean Sea nor North American continental nor South American continental islands. It is grouped with theNorthern American region, but occasionally also with the Caribbean region culturally.
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