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Cariban languages

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Group of languages
Not to be confused withCaribbean languages.
Cariban
Geographic
distribution		Mostly within north-central South America, with extensions in the southern Caribbean and in Central America.
Linguistic classificationJe–Tupi–Carib?
  • Cariban
Language codes
Glottologcari1283
Present location of Cariban languages, c. 2000, and probable extent in the 16th century.

TheCariban languages are afamily of languages Indigenous to north-easternSouth America. They are widespread across northernmost South America, from the mouth of theAmazon River to theColombian Andes, and they are also spoken in small pockets of central Brazil. The languages of the Cariban family are relatively closely related. There are about three dozen, but most are spoken only by a few hundred people.Macushi is the only language among them with numerous speakers, estimated at 30,000. The Cariban family is well known among linguists partly because one language in the family—Hixkaryana—has a defaultword order ofobject–verb–subject. Prior to their discovery of this, linguists presumed that this order did not exist in any spokennatural language.

In the 16th century,[citation needed] Cariban peoples expanded into theLesser Antilles. There they killed or displaced, and also mixed with theArawak peoples who already inhabited the islands. The resulting language—Kalhíphona or Island Carib—was Carib in name but largely Arawak in substance.[citation needed] The Carib male conquerors took Arawak women as wives, and the latter passed on their own language on to the children. For a time, Arawak was spoken by women and children and Carib by adult men, but as each generation of Carib-Arawak boys reached adulthood, they acquired less Carib until only basic vocabulary and a few grammatical elements were left. That form ofIsland Carib became extinct in theLesser Antilles in the 1920s, but it survives asGarífuna, or "Black Carib," inCentral America. The gender distinction has dwindled to only a handful of words.Dominica is the only island in the easternCaribbean to retain some of itspre-Columbian population, descendants of theCarib Indians, about 3,000 of whom live on the island's east coast.

Genetic relations

[edit]

The Cariban languages share irregular morphology with theJê andTupian families. Ribeiro connects them all in aJe–Tupi–Carib family.[citation needed] Meira, Gildea, & Hoff (2010) note that likely morphemes in proto-Tupian and proto-Cariban are good candidates for being cognates, but that work so far is insufficient to make definitive statements.

Language contact

[edit]

Jolkesky (2016) notes that there are lexical similarities with theGuato,Kawapana,Nambikwara,Taruma,Warao,Arawak,Bororo,Jeoromitxi,Karaja,Rikbaktsa, andTupi language families due to contact.[1]

Extensive lexical similarities between Cariban and variousMacro-Jê languages suggest that Cariban languages had originated in theLower Amazon region (rather than in theGuiana Highlands). There they were in contact with early forms of Macro-Jê languages, which were likely spoken in an area between theParecis Plateau and upperAraguaia River.[1]: 425 

Family division

[edit]

The Cariban languages are closely related. In many cases where one of the languages is more distinct, this is due to influence from neighboring languages rather than an indication that it is not closely related. According to Kaufman (2007), "Except for Opon, Yukpa, Pimenteira and Palmela (and possibly Panare), the Cariban languages are not very diverse phonologically and lexically (though more so than Romance, for example)."[2]

Previous classifications

[edit]

Good data has been collected around ca. 2000 on most Cariban languages; classifications prior to that time (including Kaufman 2007, which relies on Kaufman 1994) are unreliable.

Several such classifications have been published; the one shown here, by Derbyshire (1999) divides Cariban into seven branches. A traditional geographic classification into northern and southern branches is cross referenced with (N) or (S) after each language.[3]

The extinctPatagón de Perico language of northern Peru also appears to have been a Cariban language, perhaps close to Carijona.Yao is so poorly attested that Gildea believes it may never be classified.

Loukotka (1968)

[edit]

Below is a full list of Cariban language varieties listed byLoukotka (1968), including names of unattested varieties.[4]

Cariban language varieties listed byLoukotka (1968)

Western languages:

  • Caraib /Calinago /Karib – language spoken by the insular and continental Caraibes, with many dialects:
    • Dialect of theinsular Caraibes, once spoken on theLesser Antilles Islands, now by only a few old individuals in a reserve on the island ofDominica.
    • Dialect ofPomeroon /Caribisi /Acarabisi – spoken on theMacarani River andPomeroon River, Guyana.
    • Tabare /Cariña – dialect spoken by the inhabitants of the villages ofEl Guasey,Cachipo,Cachama, andSan Joaquín de Parire (Mapicure) in the state of Anzoátegui and in the village ofTapaquire in the state of Bolívar, Venezuela.
    • Caribe – extinct dialect once spoken by the descendants of Caraibes and by the mixed population on the plains of Barcelona, states of Monagas and Anzoátegui, Venezuela.
    • Carif /Moreno – dialect combined with Arawakan, spoken by the Negro Indian mixed population of British Honduras, in Guatemala on the Gulf of Honduras, and on Roatan Island in Honduras, Central America.
    • Cariniaco – extinct dialect once spoken at the mouth of theCaura River, state of Bolívar, Venezuela.
    • Mayé – extinct dialect once spoken on theCasipore River, Amapá territory, Brazil. (Unattested.)
    • Paracoto – extinct dialect once spoken at the mouth of theAraguari River, Amapá and at the mouth of the Mana River, French Guiana. (Unattested.)
    • Carane – once spoken at the old mission of São Paulo d'Oiapoque, Amapá territory. (Unattested.)
    • Norac /Norag – once spoken on theApprouague River, French Guiana, later on theAnotarí River; now extinct. (Unattested.)
    • Itutan – once spoken on the lower course of theCasipore River and in theSerra Lombard, Amapá. (Unattested.)
    • Curucuane – once spoken on the lower course of theCasipore River, south of the Itutan tribe. (Unattested.)
    • Aricarí – once spoken near the Curucuane tribe on the lower course of theCalçoene River. (Unattested.)
    • Sapai – once spoken on theMana River, French Guiana. (Unattested.)
    • Piriou – once spoken in French Guiana on the middle course of theOyapoque River. (Unattested.)
    • Mersiou – once spoken on theAratye River,Inini River, andAua River, French Guiana, now probably extinct. (Unattested.)
    • Acoqua – once spoken at the sources of theApprouague River, and on theCamopi River, French Guiana. (Unattested.)
    • Wai – spoken on theTamouri River, French Guiana; now perhaps extinct. (Unattested.)
    • Taira – spoken in the same colony as the Wai tribe on theIracoubo River. (Unattested.)
    • Acuria – originally spoken on theNickerie River andCoppename River, Suriname; now on theBerbice River, Guyana. (Unattested.)
    • Chacoi – spoken by a few mixed individuals between theBerbice River andEssequibo River, Guyana. (Unattested.)
    • Parabaiana – once spoken on the middle course of theMarouini River, French Guiana. (Unattested.)
    • Caicuchiana – once spoken in French Guiana, south of the Parabaiana tribe. (Unattested.)
Eastern languages
Trio group
Chiquena group
Waiwai group
Yauapery group
Pauishana group
Macusi group
Pemón group
  • Taurepän /Taulipáng /Ipuricoto /Pemón – spoken between theUraricuena River andMount Roraima to theCaroní River, in the border zone of Brazil and Venezuela.
  • Arecuná – spoken at the sources of theCaroní River andParagua River, state of Bolívar, Venezuela.
  • Ingaricó – spoken to the north ofMount Roraima, border region of Brazil and Venezuela.
  • Patamona – spoken on thePotaro River andIreng River, Guyana. (F. Lutz 1912 passim, only a few words.)
  • Camaracoto – spoken in the state of Bolívar, Venezuela, on theParagua River andCaroní River.
  • Arinagoto – once spoken on theParagua River, state of Bolívar, now perhaps extinct. (Unattested.)
  • Paraparucota – once spoken between theCaura River andCuchivero River, state of Bolívar; now extinct. (Unattested.)
  • Quiriquiripa – extinct language once spoken on the left bank of theCaura River. (Unattested.)
  • Aguaricoto – extinct language once spoken on the lower course of theCaura River, the same region. (Unattested.)
  • Serecong /Sarrakong – once spoken in the same region at the sources of theMahú River. (Unattested.)
  • Chiricum – once spoken by the western neighbors of the Taurepán tribe in the Rio Branco territory. (Unattested.)
  • Achirigoto – once spoken on the left bank of theCaura River, middle course, in the state of Bolívar. (Unattested.)
  • Paudacoto – once spoken in the state of Bolívar at the sources of theAro River. (Unattested.)
  • Cachirigoto – once spoken in the state of Bolívar south of the Camaracotó tribe. (Unattested.)
  • Barinagoto – once spoken at the mouth of theCaroní River, Bolívar state, Venezuela. (Unattested.)
  • Arebato – once spoken in the village of Cuchara on theCaura River in the state of Bolívar, now perhaps extinct. (Unattested.)
  • Armacoto – once spoken in the same region between theParagua River andMerevari River. (Unattested.)
  • Mauitsi – once spoken at the sources of theParagua River in the same region. (Unattested.)
  • Uaica /Waica – spoken by a few families on theYuruari River andCuyuni River, state of Bolívar.
  • Acawai /Capong – spoken in Guyana on theMoruca River,Cuyuni River,Acarabisi River, andPomeroon River.
Maquiritaré group
  • Decuána /Deukwana /Maquiritaré – spoken on theCaura River,Ventuari River,Merevari River, andAuari River, state of Bolívar and Amazonas territory, Venezuela, and between theCotingo River andMajari River, territory of Rio Branco, Brazil.
  • Yecuaná /Mayongcong – spoken on theCaura River southwest of the Arecuna tribe, state of Bolívar, Venezuela.
  • Ihuruána – spoken at the sources of theVentuari River, territory of Amazonas, Venezuela.
  • Cunuaná /Kunuhana – spoken in the same territory at the sources of theCunucunuma River. (only four words.)
  • Morononi – extinct language once spoken in the same territory on theVentuari River. (Unattested.)
  • Puipuitene – extinct language once spoken on the same river in the same territory by the neighbors of the Decuaná tribe. (Unattested.)
  • Acariana – once spoken by the neighbors of the Morononi tribe on theOrinoco River. (Unattested.)
  • Ocomesiane – once spoken in the same region on thePadamo River. (Unattested.)
  • Areviriana – once spoken by the eastern neighbors of the Ihuruána tribe. (Unattested.)
  • Jure – once spoken on the left bank of the middle course of theVentuari River. (Unattested.)
  • Pishauco /Pshavaco – once spoken on the Serra Tepequem, Rio Branco territory. (Unattested.)
  • Mejepure – once spoken on the left ban1e of the lower course of theVentuari River. (Unattested.)
  • Aberiana – once spoken by the neighbors of the Acariana tribe on the upper course of theOrinoco River. (Unattested.)
Mapoyo group
  • Mapoyo /Nepoyo – spoken by a small tribe between theParguaza River andSuapure River, state of Bolívar, Venezuela.
  • Carinuaca – extinct language once spoken in the area between the Ihuruána and Yauarána tribes, territory of Amazonas, Venezuela. (Unattested.)
  • Curasicana /Kurushikiána /Orechicano – once spoken at the sources of theBiehita River, now by only a few individuals. (Unattested.)
  • Wökiare /Uaiquire – unknown language spoken in the same region on theParu River. (Unattested.)
  • Yauarána /Yabarána – language spoken in the same territory on theManapiare River.
  • Quaqua – once spoken by the northern neighbors of the Mapoyo tribe. (Unattested.)
  • Guaquiri – once spoken by the northern neighbors of the Curasicana tribe. (Unattested.)
  • Pareca – spoken in the region west of theCuchivero River, now probably extinct. (Unattested.)
  • Taparito – extinct language once spoken on the middle course of theCaura River. (Unattested.)
  • Cadupinapo – once spoken by the southern neighbors of the Achirigoto tribe. (Unattested.)
  • Tabajari – now probably extinct, once spoken on the left bank of theErebato River, state of Bolívar. (Unattested.)
Panare group
  • Panáre – language of a small tribe, spoken at the sources of theCuchivero River, state of Bolívar, Venezuela.
  • Abira – once spoken at the sources of theManapiare River. (Unattested.)
  • Eye – once spoken by the southwestern neighbors of the Panáre tribe at the sources of theCuchivero River. (Unattested.)
Tamanaco group
  • Tamanaco – extinct language once spoken along theOrinoco River from the mouth of theCaroni River to the mouth of theCuchivero River, state of Bolívar, Venezuela.
  • Chayma /Guarapiche /Sayma – extinct language once spoken on theGuarapiche River, state of Anzoátegui, Venezuela.
  • Cumanagota – extinct language once spoken on theCabo Codera and nearCumaná, state of Sucre, Venezuela.
  • Tivericoto – once spoken on the coast of the state of Monagas, Venezuela
  • Palenque – once spoken between theUnare River andTamanaco River, Guárico state.
  • Caraca – once spoken around the modern capital of Caracas, Venezuela. (A. Espinosa (Vazquez de Espinosa) 1948, pp. 36–37, only a few words.)
  • Ciparigoto – extinct language once spoken on theYaracuy River andAroa River, state of Yaracuy. (Unattested.)
  • Teque – once spoken in the Guaire valley, state of Miranda. (Unattested.)
  • Tacarigua – once spoken around Lake Valencia, Miranda. (Unattested.)
  • Toromaina – once spoken on theSan Pedro River, federal district of Venezuela. (Unattested.)
  • Arbaco – once spoken around the modern city of Victoria, state of Aragua. (Unattested.)
  • Meregoto – once spoken on the western shore ofLake Valencia in the state of Aragua. (Unattested.)
  • Quiriquire – extinct language once spoken on theTuy River andMisoa River, state of Miranda. (Oramas 1918a, only a few patronyms.)
  • Chapacuare – once spoken in the Pascua valley, state of Guárico. (Unattested.)
  • Tarma – once spoken near the modern city ofMaracay, state of Aragua. (Unattested.)
  • Mariche – once spoken in theBaruta valley, state of Miranda. (Unattested.)
  • Guayqueri – extinct language once spoken on thePaoviejo River, state of Cojedes. (Gumilla 1745, pt. 2, pp. 67–68, only one phrase.)[8]
  • Tomuza – once spoken between theChico River andPiritú River, states of Miranda and Anzoátegui. (Unattested.)
  • Haerena /Guarena – once spoken between theGuarenas River andGuatire River, state of Anzoátegui. (Unattested.)
  • Piritú – once spoken around the modern city ofPuerto Píritu, state of Anzoátegui. (Unattested.)
  • Tagare – once spoken on the coast of theGulf of Cariaco, state of Sucre. (Unattested.)
  • Pariagoto /Guayuno – extinct language once spoken on theParia Peninsula in the state of Sucre.
  • Chamaygua – once spoken in the state of Sucre by the neighbors of the Cumanagota tribe. (Unattested.)
Yao group
  • Yao /Anacaioury – language once spoken by two tribes: one on the western part of the island of Trinidad; the other in French Guiana on theIvaricopo River and Cau River.
Shebayi group
  • Shebayi /Supaye – extinct language once spoken in the Guianas; exact location is unknown.
Motilon group
  • Yupe /Motilon – spoken by many tribes in theSierra de Perijá, state of Zulia, Venezuela, and in the department of Magdalena, Colombia. Dialects:
    • Chague /Apon – spoken on theApon River, Zulia.
    • Iroca – spoken on theCasacará River, Magdalena.
    • Macoa – spoken on theYasa River andNegro River, Zulia.
    • Manastara – spoken on theBecerril River, Zulia.
    • Maraca – spoken by a tribe at the source of theMachigue River and on theMaraca River, Magdalena.
    • Parirí – spoken to the south of theApon River.
    • Shapáru /Chaparro – spoken by the western neighbors of the Parirí tribe, Zulia.
    • Uasamo – spoken in the same area by the northern neighbors of the Shapáru tribe. (Unattested.)
    • Susa – spoken in the central part of theSierra de Perijá, Magdalena. (Unattested.)
    • Manaure – spoken on the left bank of the lower course of theLa Paz River, Magdalena. (Unattested.)
    • Tucushmo – spoken by the northern neighbors of the Iroca tribe, Magdalena. (Unattested.)
    • Socorpa – spoken in the same area by the northern neighbors of the Maracá tribe. (Unattested.)
    • Curumaní – spoken south of theTucui River, Magdalena. (Unattested.)
    • Socomba – spoken between the sources of theMaracá River andTucui River, formerly also on theBuenavista River, Magdalena. (Unattested.)
    • Tucuco – spoken at the sources of theTucuco River, Zulia. (Unattested.)
    • Shiquimu – spoken by the southwestern neighbors of the Shaparu tribe, Zulia. (Unattested.)
    • Irapa – spoken by the eastern neighbors of the Shiguimu tribe. (Unattested.)
    • Pshicacuo – spoken by the western neighbors of the Tucuco tribe. (Unattested.)
    • Mishorca – spoken at the sources of theTucuco River by the neighbors of the Pariri tribe. (Unattested.)
    • Yapreria /Sabril – spoken at the sources of thePalmar River, Zulia. (Anonymous Madrid h.)
    • Coyaima /Tupe – extinct language once spoken on theCésar River, Magdalena. (Castro Trespalacios 1946, only a few patronyms.)
    • Burede – once spoken at the sources of theSocuy River, Zulia. (Unattested.)
    • Pemeno – once spoken at the mouth of theEscalante River, Zulia. (Unattested.)
    • Bubure /Bobure – once spoken in the state of Zulia around the modern cities ofBobures and Gibraltar. (Unattested.)
    • Quenagua – extinct language once spoken in Espiritu Santo Valley in the state of Zulia. (Unattested.)
    • Umaquena – once spoken on theUmaquena River, Zulia. (Unattested.)
    • Sunesua – once spoken by the southern neighbors of the Quenaga tribe in the Espiritu Santo Valley, Zulia. (Unattested.)
    • Lobatera – once spoken around the modern city of Lobatera, state of Táchira. (Unattested.)
    • Táchira – once spoken on theTáchira River, state of Táchira. (Unattested.)
    • Tapano – once spoken in the state of Mérida betweenLake Onia andLake Motilon. (Unattested.)
    • Miyuse – once spoken in the state of Mérida on theMucujepe River andTucani River. (Unattested.)
Pijao group
Opone group
  • Opone – extinct language once spoken on theOpone River, department of Santander, Colombia.
  • Carare – spoken by a few individuals on theCarare River in the department of Santander.
  • Yariguí – once spoken on theSogamoso River and inBarranca Bermeja in the same department. (Unattested.)
  • Hacaritama – once spoken around present-dayHacaritama city in the department of Santander.
  • Xiriguana – extinct language of a tribe once living in the department of Santander in the Cordillera de Lebaja. (Unattested.)
  • Carate – once spoken around the modern city ofOcaña, department of Norte de Santander. (Unattested.)
  • Corbago – once spoken in the department of Magdalena in theSierra de Mene. (Unattested.)
  • Guane – once spoken in the department of Santander at the sources of theTarare River. (Gumilla 1745, pt. 2, p. 40, only two words.)
  • Chinato – extinct language once spoken on the upper course of theZulia River, department of Norte de Santander, around the modern city ofCúcuta. (Unattested.)
  • Zorca – once spoken in the same department in the San Cristóbal Valley (Unattested.)
  • Cariquena – once spoken on theCariquena River in the state of Táchira, Venezuela. (Unattested.)
  • Capacho – once spoken around the village ofCapacho in the state of Táchira, Venezuela. (Unattested.)
Carijona group
  • Guaque /Huaque /Murcielaga – extinct language once spoken on theInganos River, Caquetá territory, Colombia.
  • Carijona /Kalihóna – language now spoken by a few individuals on the middle course of theCaquetá River, territory of Caquetá.
  • Umáua /Hiánocoto /Máua – language spoken at the sources of theApoporis River in the territory of Caquetá.
  • Saha /Tsahatsaha – spoken in the territory of Caquetá between theCuemani River andYarí River. (Unattested.)
  • Riama – spoken between theYari River,Apoporis River, andVaupés River, territories of Caquetá and Vaupés. (Unattested.)
  • Mahotoyana – spoken in the territory of Vaupés on theMacaya River. (Unattested.)
  • Ajajú – unknown language spoken on theAjaju River, Amazonas territory. (Unattested.)
Patagon group
  • Patagon – extinct language once spoken in the villages of Paca,Olipanche, and Bagua and around the modern city ofJaén, department of Cajamarca, Peru. (only a few words.)
Arara group
Palmela group
Pimenteira group
Xingú group

Meira (2006)

[edit]

Preliminary internal classification of the Cariban languages according toSérgio Meira (2006):[9]: 169 

Gildea (2012)

[edit]

As of Gildea (2012), there had not yet been time to fully reclassify the Cariban languages based on the new data. The list here is therefore tentative, though an improvement over the one above; the most secure branches are listed first, and only two of the extinct languages are addressed.[11]

Meira et al. (2015)

[edit]

Meira, Birchall & Chousou-Polydouri (2015) give the followingphylogenetic tree of Cariban, based on acomputational phylogenetic analysis of 100-itemSwadesh lists.[12]

Meira, Birchall & Chousou-Polydouri (2015) conclude that the Proto-Caribanhomeland was located north of theAmazon River, and that there is no evidence for a northward migration from the south, as previously proposed byRodrigues (1985).[13] Rather there were two southern migrations (Pekodian andNahukwa into theUpper Xingu).

Jolkesky (2016)

[edit]

Internal classification by Jolkesky (2016):[1]

(† = extinct)

Vocabulary

[edit]

Loukotka (1968) lists the following basic vocabulary items for the Cariban (Karaib) languages.[4]

LanguageBranchheadeyetoothmanonetwothree
YarumaXingúu-viteye-nguruu-ényó
BakairíXingúx-ináraxux-ánux-yériagurótotokoleleasageahágetokólo
NahukwáXingúu-víteröu-vínuruu-vireutotoálechiatakeetila
KuikutlXingúu-ritölu-ínuruu-ílutóto
KalapaloXingúu-íköreu-ínoru
YamarikunáXingúu-ínoruu-iglutóto
AráraAráramuchínaoñurumayériukonenáneatagataganané
PariríAráramũchíunguruheéngol'ügóronanéatágatáganane
ApingiArárai-montxiangrungoyeriukonetoinéasakoroaséruao
PalmelaPalmelana-ápoónoyeréókaaropéahaohehua
PimenteiraPimenteirababuriönthuburüyarichä
PijaoPijaoluːntínkioréma
OponeOponeyu-úhyéuxórokírseneárokosásáura
CarareOponesü-okoyeo
GuaqueCarijonaxutuyeyerigire
CarijonaCarijonautuhéyénuruyérikiretéuisekeneréseaueré
UmáuaCarijonabútuheyenuːruyeːligelétéuisakéneledyelauele
PatagonPatagon
YupeMotilono-hárzaánokiíkokürpatukumarkókosárkokoserárko
ChaqueMotilono-harzaanókiíkokürpakumarkokasarkokosera
MacoaMotilonyu-wasáanukiyiːkomashákumárkokósakkoséra
MaracaMotilonyu-wasayo-nu
PariríMotilonyu-wásayá-nukiʔikokipantukumárkukósaʔ
ShapáruMotilonyu-wásayá-nuyikumárkokósa
IrocaMotilontʔkúmaː
Itoto MaimyTamanacoPùpooEnuryJeryItotoTewinAisakeAisoroaw
TivericotoTamanacoo-putpao-neanaovinokoorwa
PalenqueTamanaco
YaoYaoboppevokrehioselitewintageterewaw
ShebayiShebayiwa-kewüriwa-dakölinu-yeri
DecuánaMaquiritaréu-huhéénuyédetokomotoːnihakeaduáne
YecuanáMaquiritaréhóufu-yenuruyeːriareifhetauíniakehedáue
CunuanáMaquiritaréhú-ha
IhuruánaMaquiritaréhú-heyeːde
MapoyoMapoyouastarixene-yonuruxe-ñeiritokomotóskenasakanetominiakeré
YauaránaMapoyoexne-oaixtéliexne-nuruexne-yélitokúnuenix-péteasákepetomeyákele
PanárePanáreoʔóyoʔón
TaurepánTaurepánupaiyénuu-yékuraiteukinánsákeʔenéseulúana
ArecunaTaurepánpu-paiyenúu-yéuaratitäukinángsakeineisélehaúvane
CamaracotoTaurepánpupai-toenu-towaratotaʔakintsaganeetserau
IngaricoTaurepánu-paíu-yenúu-yéorauóteukíngatsalongkongetseuluaong-kóng
UaicaTaurepánienuru
AcawaiTaurepányu-popoyenuruyuwínowtidzyineasakróasorwo
MacusiMacusipo-paitenuu-yekáuaratáetiwingsagarésiruane
KeserumaMacusiyenupemóngótivín
PurucotoMacusihau-pupehau-yenúhau-yéewalaitóaleiniiniperkuruinialé
WayumaraMacusii-hubéyenurúi-yelétotótuevinéasáleeseuluó
ParaviyanaMacusii-pupáe-rénialöe-lelömeimunteuénaköunienolaulé
ZaparáMacusiune-kapúu-yonútopúpesóitxemenétulekalenóoláno
YauaperyYauaperyki-yókembáki-ärimarabáasikiusono
UaimiriYauaperyki-fókopanamareːki-erikumutareːunionoːtukunumáuruanoː
OrixanáYauaperyu-paiu-iniu-yetéitiamontuimosananeburésarsiua
PauishanaPauishanapuːpoyoːnoyeyungweiníkenaːnaataːreãná-mokaːre
WaiwaiWaiwaia-tipirie-oruko-yóritatachewñéasakíchorohoko
ParucotoWaiwaio-yúlako-yalitukinkaréasakenéserkuané
UaiboiWaiwaiku-nurúkamuhí
HishcarianaWaiwaikui-kuturuku-yotamushitonishásakósorowão
BonariWaiwaiiri-opónuru-báyoréukeréabanépademakáuruá
ChiquenaChiquenaya-nũruyolisotowinaliasagasorawau
SalumaChiquenayiwu-tupuliye-nu
PauxiChiquenatoto
UayeuéChiquenavu-turúu-yaritotó
CachuenaChiquenayo-soruyo-núruyorétotótuinaríasákiosoruaul
MutuanChiquenako-nofatiyurú
TrioTrioí-pútupoye-nurui-yerikirítinkiökönövoyerau
UrucuyenaTrioputpíi-eúyi-eːdaokiríwanánashakenéheruáu
WamaTriowi-pupoye-nuruye-ri
TliometesenTriooba-tuwirien-nuruoliːenkilitonikinisokororoebemüni
OcomayanaTriou-nuye
PianocotoTrioye-neiyu-taliokirí
RangúTrio
WaianaEasterne-putiüye-nuruyéreokiriuaptöhakenéeheruaé
UpuruiEasterne-putpiʔiye-nuruyéreokiri
RucuyeneEasternité-purue-nuruyeréokiritavenésakenéhéléuʔau
ApalaiEasternu-pupuanuderierituaseniasakoroeseuʔau
AracajúEasternseresaapükaua
CaraibWesternbúpué-huluyeriuakuriábamabíamaeleva
GalibiWesternu-pupue-nuruyeréokiriawínokuotereva
CaribisiWesternye-pupoye-nuruwokiriówéokoorwá
CaribeWesternada-puxodherebuköreóbinókoórwa
CariniacoWesterné-nuruyeriokiriowiuaririorowa
CarifWesternnábulutágubáriugíriábanabiámaíruwa


LanguageBranchwaterfiresunmoonmaizejaguararrow
YarumaXingúpárukampóntsizinunó
BakairíXingúpárupátochíshinúnaanádzyiakápüráu
NahukwáXingútunaitóritinuneanáikerehüré
KuikutlXingútunañorotékelitinúnetonuríñe
KalapaloXingúitoːturúgitiñe
YamarikunáXingúlitinúne
AráraAráraparúkampottitinúnakonatokorópuiram
PariríAráraparúkampótititunóhonáthogrópuyrém
ApingiAráraparukampotchichinunoanatokoripirem
PalmelaPalmelatunávavayéyuñúñaéñaokóropuera
PimenteiraPimenteiratunavafundititinuluthauatoprümachöpürarü
PijaoPijaotánanuhúgihuílnúnaxaguáde
OponeOponetunáfotóbuenokanómuesixákeyahá
CarareOponekʔarabwenuñemenyepak'anye
GuaqueCarijonatunamaxotovehinunakaikuchi
CarijonaCarijonatunaapotobeinunuakaikusixarakue
UmáuaCarijonatuːnamahótowéinuːneanaːdzyikaikudzyihuːya
PatagonPatagontunáanás
YupeMotilonkunaguestagüichókunaméisóʔosamás
ChaqueMotilonkunahuetogichiokunomeisó
MacoaMotilonkúnahuétohuicholkuníkmeíshopuréyi
MaracaMotilonkuːnawhishtahuichokunueːshopuraye
PariríMotilonkánawuetawíchukúnu
ShapáruMotilonkúnawuéta
IrocaMotilonkuːnaesho
TamanacoTamanacodunáuaptoveyununaxexeakérepreu
ChaymaTamanacotunaapotovieyunoninamapokocheikupure
CumanagotaTamanacotunaveyunonumañazekozeikopreu
TivericotoTamanacotunaapotovéniano
PalenqueTamanacotunaekere
YaoYaotunáuapotoveyononaaruamapuru
ShebayiShebayiwekulüekirtrireheweri
DecuánaMaquiritarétonawátocéinonanakchimáedohaxkúdi
YecuanáMaquiritarétunáwatozyinuːnamaroshimaːra
CunuanáMaquiritaréuáʔtoshinúnashimáda
IhuruánaMaquiritarétunáwátozyiːnuːne
MapoyoMapoyotunakátunnunaoxonaiékireúbuʔare
YauaránaMapoyotúnawátoyãtonunúnenáchihékelepákuli
PanárePanáreechár-kungüeguakenakxadpoʔót
TaurepánTaurepántunáapógwéikapéianainkaikusépeléu
ArecunaTaurepántunaapoväikapeáaʔanaigkaikusipureu
CamaracotoTaurepánapoiʔbekapuianaiʔkakutsepurau
IngaricoTaurepántunáápowéikapéianaíkaikushípelé
UaicaTaurepántunaapokueynuna
AcawaiTaurepántunowatovieyununokaikushipulewa
MacusiMacusitunauatóweikapoianainkaikushíeriu
KeserumaMacusi
PurucotoMacusitunaapotówéinánõkaikudzépoyá
WayumaraMacusitúnawatóweyúnunámazyinákaikushiheló
ParaviyanaMacusidónavuatútamananonéainiaineköléarámöu
ZaparáMacusitunáwatówékapéianáeekeléurapóno
YauaperyYauaperytunáuatóeyúdéʔelikokoshíibikuari
UaimiriYauaperytunãuatoːeioːnunuebauhikúkúboimaprú
OrixanáYauaperytunáuatóueihuteparéeuáekeréupreu
PauishanaPauishanatunáuatóuainúnauátakauraːpa
WaiwaiWaiwaitunáwehtókamonunéyaypíwaywí
ParucotoWaiwaitunawituuchikapubeakeré
UaiboiWaiwaitunazyitónúna
HishcarianaWaiwaitonáwuhritókamaːnanoːnáwaiwí
BonariWaiwaitunáuatúweyukeripureːná
ChiquenaChiquenatunawihalasesiimhoklaho
SalumaChiquenatuna
PauxiChiquenatunaisirenuneuaupréu
UayeuéChiquenatunápiétokamonunámaipurikurumuri
CachuenaChiquenatunámirótóisósoimnóhonesekaikesúpraué
MutuanChiquenatunaritósoːrozyairúpurí
TrioTriotúnamataveyununöanaimaipuripléu
UrucuyenaTriotunámatouwinunamaipurípuréu
WamaTriotunamatoweipaora
TliometesenTriotonomatoweinunupotirerumashibulipureri
OcomayanaTriotunamatouwinuna
PianocotoTriotunamattowehnunaeñayemaipuripurau
RangúTriotumamatonuna
WaianaEasterntunauapotshishinunuöenaiyauéripleu
UpuruiEasterntunauapotshishinunuenaiyaueripiréu
RucuyeneEasterntunauapotchichinunuenaimaipuripiréu
ApalaiEasterntunaapotóchichinunóashinasemachipuripiróu
AracajúEasterntunauaptochichiyasüeuárapára
CaraibWesterntóneuátuhueyunúnúaoashikahikushibuleúa
GalibiWesterntunauatoveyununoauoasikaikusiplia
CaribisiWesterntunawatúwiyeyununopurewa
CaribeWesterntúnabedunúnoperöwa
CariniacoWesterntúnawatowedonunopuriui
CarifWesterndúnawátuuéyuhátauásgáigusiláru

Proto-language

[edit]
Proto-Cariban
Reconstruction ofCariban languages

Proto-Cariban phonology according to Gildea (2012):[11]: 448 

Proto-Cariban consonants
LabialAlveolarPalatalVelar
Plosiveptk
Nasalmn
Approximantwrj
Proto-Cariban vowels
FrontCentralBack
Closeiɨu
Mideôo
Opena

Proto-Cariban reconstructions by Gildea (2007, 2012):[14][15]

Proto-Cariban reconstructions by Gildea (2007, 2012)
glossProto-Carib
'sun'*titi
'moon'*nunô
'water (n)'*tuna
'sunlight'*awatinɨ
'star'*tirikô
'DESIDERATIVE'*(CV)te
'sand'*saka(w)
'sand'*samutu
'body'*jamun
'flesh, meat, body'*punu
'meat food'*ôtɨ
'water'*paru
'rain'*konopo
'person'*karipona
'man'*wôkɨrɨ
'husband'*nɨjo, *mɨjo
'eye'*ônu-ru
'ear'*para-rɨ
'nose'*ôwna-rɨ
'mouth'*mɨta-rɨ
'lip'*ôtipi-rɨ
'saliva'*ôtaku
'tooth'*(j)ô-rɨ
'tongue'*nuru
'one'*tôwinô
'two'*atjôkô(nô/ne)
'head'*pu-tupô
'forehead'*pe-rɨ
'leg'*pôre(-pɨ/pa)
'foot'*pupu-ru
'heel'*pu(pu)-tôpu
'sole of foot'*pɨta
'knee'*ôtjôkumu-ru
'neck'*pɨmɨ-rɨ
'breast'*manatɨ-rɨ
'chest'*puropi-rɨ
'buttocks'*pupɨtɨkɨ
'cheek'*peta
'forest'*jutu
'inside'*tawô
'to bite'*ôteka
'to give; to put'*utu
'hand'*ômija-rɨ, *amo-rɨ
'to do; to make; to put'*(tɨ)rɨ, *(t)ɨrɨ
'to giftO (with something)'*ekarama
'to put away'*arama
'belly'*wetVpu
'belly'*(e)wenɨ
'heart (guts); chest'*ôwanô
'liver'*ôre
'to close (tr. v)'*apuru
'to descend'*wɨpɨtô
'to see'*ône
'to hear'*ôta
'to know (tr. v)'*putu
'to know (postp)'*warô
'to sleep'*wônɨkɨ
'to sleep'*wetu(mɨ)
'to shoot; to kill'*(tɨ)wô, *(t)wô(nô)
'to drink'*woku-ru
'to drink'*ônɨrɨ
'to eat (intr. v)'*ôt-ôku
'to eat fruit'*ônapɨ
'to eat meat'*(t)ônô
'to eat flour/bread'*(t)ôku
'to eat nuts'*aku
'to grate (manioc)'*(tɨ)kɨ
'to bathe (O)'*(tɨ)pɨ
'to weave'*(tɨ)kapɨ
'to cook; to boil'*(tɨ)jô
'to take; to pull out/away'*(t)ôwɨ
'to throw out'*(tɨ)papo
'to gather fruit'*(tɨ)pôtɨ
'fire'*wepeto
'fire'*mapoto
'ash'*wôreiCV
'to light fire'*(t)urô
'to burn (intr. v)'*jatu
'to burn (tr. v)'*uk(w)a
'to fell tree/farm'*(tɨ)ma
'to go'*(wɨ-)tô(mô)
'to come'*(w)ôtepɨ
'to come'*(w)ômôkɨ
'to say'*(wɨ)ka(ti)
'to be; to say'*a(p)
'to dwell; to be'*(w)eti
'to enter'*(w)ômô(mi)
'REFLEXIVE'*(w)e-
'RECIPROCAL'*(w)ôte-
'beak'*potɨ-rɨ
'earth'*nono
'cloud'*kapurutu
'rope'*ôwa(-rɨ)
'hot'*atu(NV)
'cold'*atono
'cold'*t-ɨnotɨ-me
'good'*kure
'hard'*akɨpɨ
'snake'*ôkôju
'path'*ôtema(-rɨ)
'mountain'*(w)ɨpɨ
'older brother'*pipi
'grandchild'*pa-rɨ
'faeces'*wetɨ, *watô
'to defecate'*weka
'child'*mure
'shoulder'*mota-rɨ
'thigh'*petɨ
'hair'*(e)tipotɨ(-rɨ)
'to cut'*akôtô
'to take; to carry'*arô
'to seize'*apôti
'1SG'*ôwɨ-rô
'2SG'*ômô-rô
'2COL'*ôm-jamo
'1INCL'*kɨnmô-rô
'1INCL'*kɨwɨ-rô
'1INCL.COL'*kɨC-jamo
'1EXCL'*apina
'this (INAN)'*(t)ônɨ
'this (INAN)'*(t)ôrô
'this (ANIM)'*môtjô
'this (ANIMCOL)'*môtj-jamo
'that (INAN)'*mônɨ
'that (INAN)'*môrô
'that (ANIM)'*môkɨ-rô
'that (ANIMCOL)'*môk-jamo
'who?'*onôkɨ
'all'*ômerô
'grease; fat'*katɨ
'to grow'*atɨta, *anɨta
'thick'*tɨpɨtɨ-ma
'AUGMENTATIVE'*imô
'small'*pitikô
'woman'*wôriti
'woman'*pɨtɨ
'fish'*kana
'dog'*akôrô
'dog'*kaikuti
'louse'*(w)ajamô
'tree'*wewe, *jeje
'branch'*ekata
'arm'*apô-rɨ
'seed'*ôpɨ(-tɨpô)
'seed'*a-tɨpô
'seed; contents'*a-rɨ(-rɨ)
'seed'*ôna-tɨpô
'leaf'*jare
'root'*mitɨ
'bark, skin'*pitupô
'blood'*munu-ru
'red'*t-a(k)pi-re
'white'*t-a-(re)mutu-ne
'black'*t-puru-me/ke
'night'*koko
'nightfall (intr. v)'*koko-mamɨ
'bone'*j-ôtîpî-rî
'egg'*pumo
'horn'*retɨ-rɨ
'tail; penis'*arokɨ
'scrotum; testicle'*ômu(-ru)
'feather'*apôri-rɨ
'name'*ôtetɨ
'ant'*iraka
'ant'*kɨjawôko
'ant'*juku
'ant'*mɨkakô
'ant'*(n)mapu(nu)
'bow'*wɨrapa-rɨ
'deer'*(wɨ)kapawu
'deer'*karijakô
'grandfather'*tamo(ko)
'heavy'*amôti-ma/-ne
'to sit'*erew-ta/-ma
'lightning'*manan manan
'howler monkey'*arimi
'monkey'*itjo
'rib'*awo-tɨ
'to roast'*puru, *purô
'to run'*ekatu(mɨ)
'shadow'*amore-rɨ
'shadow'*ôkatu
'short'*tɨntɨ-tʲô
'to talk; to converse'*ôt-uru
'spider'*mojoti
'spider'*tjawaraka(ru)
'to tie'*(m)ômô
'today; now'*amenarô
'tomorrow'*koropo
'vagina'*ôrɨ
'to wait'*mômôku
'high'*kawô
'sun'*weju
'1SG'*u-
'3SG'*i-
'stone'*tôpu
'flesh, meat, body'*punu
'person'*wɨtoto
'jaguar'*kajkuti
'to bite'*eseka
'to find'*eporɨ
'to give; to put'*utu
'to close (tr. v)'*apuru
'to descend'*ôpinô
'to pierce'*atpo
'to shoot; to kill'*(tɨ)wô, *(t)wô(nô)
'to eat meat'*(t)ônô
'to grate (manioc)'*(tɨ)kɨ
'to go'*(wɨ-)tô(mô)
'to come'*(w)ôtepɨ
'to enter'*(w)ômô(mi)

See also

[edit]

Further reading

[edit]
  • Anselmo, L.; Gutiérrez Salazar, M. (1981). Diccionario Pemón. Caracas: Ediciones CORPOVEN.
  • Camargo, E. (2002). Léxico bilingüe aparai – português / português – aparai. (Languages of the World: Dictionaries, 28.). München: Lincom Europa.
  • Courtz, H. (2008). A Carib Grammar and Dictionary. Toronto: Magoria Books.
  • Gildea, S. Payne, D. (2007). Is Greenberg's “Macro-Carib” viable? Boletim do Museu Paraense Emílio Goeldi Ciências Humanas, 2:19–72.
  • Girard, V. (1971a). Proto-Carib phonology. Berkeley: University of California at Berkeley. (Doctoral dissertation).
  • Mattei-Müller, M. (1994). Diccionario ilustrado Panare-Español con índice español-panare. Caracas: Comisión Nacional Quinto Centenario.
  • Pet. W. J. A. (1987). Lokono Dian: the Arawak Language of Suriname: A Sketch of its Grammatical Structure and Lexicon. Ithaca: Cornell University. (Doctoral dissertation).
  • Puig, M. M. P. (1944). Diccionario de la Lengua Caribe Cuna. Panamá: La Estrella de Panamá.
  • Vitorino, M. M. (1991). Dicionário bilíngüe Wai-Wai/Português, Português/Wai-Wai. Boa Vista: Missão Evangélica da Amazônia.

References

[edit]
  1. ^abcJolkesky, Marcelo Pinho De Valhery. 2016.Estudo arqueo-ecolinguístico das terras tropicais sul-americanas. Ph.D. dissertation,University of Brasília.
  2. ^Kaufman, Terrence. 2007. "South America". In: R. E. Asher and Christopher Moseley (eds.),Atlas of the World’s Languages (2nd edition), 59–94. London: Routledge.
  3. ^Desmond Derbyshire, 1999. "Carib". In Dixon & Aikhenvald, eds.,The Amazonian Languages. CUP.
  4. ^abLoukotka, Čestmír (1968).Classification of South American Indian languages. Los Angeles: UCLA Latin American Center.
  5. ^"Glottolog 5.1 - Apoto".glottolog.org. Retrieved2025-04-16.
  6. ^Migliazza, Ernest C. (1985-12-31), Klein, Harriet E. Manelis; Stark, Louisa R. (eds.),"1. Languages of the Orinoco-Amazon Region: Current Status",South American Indian Languages, University of Texas Press, pp. 15–139,doi:10.7560/775923-002,ISBN 978-1-4773-0025-1, retrieved2025-09-30
  7. ^Mayer, Alcuin (1951)."Lendas Macuxís".Journal de la société des américanistes.40 (1):67–87.doi:10.3406/jsa.1951.2540.
  8. ^Gumilla, Joseph. 1745.El Orinoco ilustrado, y defendido: Historia natural, civil, y geographica de este gran Rio, y de sus caudalosas vertientes. 2nd ed., in 2 pts. Madrid. (New ed., Barcelona, 1791.)
  9. ^Meira, Sérgio. 2006.A família lingüística Caribe (Karíb).Revista de Estudos e Pesquisas v.3, n.1/2, p.157-174. Brasília: FUNAI. (PDF)
  10. ^Carvalho, Fernando O. de (2020).Tocantins Apiaká, Parirí and Yarumá as Members of the Pekodian Branch (Cariban).Revista Brasileira de Línguas Indígenas – RBLI. Macapá, v. 3, n. 1, p. 85-93, 2020.
  11. ^abGildea, Spike. 2012. "Linguistic studies in the Cariban family", in Campbell & Grondona, eds,The Indigenous Languages of South America: A Comprehensive Guide. Berlin/Boston: De Gruyter Mouton.
  12. ^Meira S, Birchall J, Chousou-Polydouri S. 2015.A character-based internal classification of the Cariban family. Talk presented at the 48th Annual Meeting of the Societas Linguisticae Europaea, Leiden, Netherlands, Sept. 4.
  13. ^Rodrigues, Aryon. 1985. Evidence for Tupi-Carib relationships. InSouth American Indian Languages: Retrospect and Prospect, ed. HE Manelis Klein, LR Stark, pp. 371–404. Austin: University of Texas Press.
  14. ^Gildea, S. & Payne, D. (2007). Is Greenberg's "Macro-Carib" viable? In Boletim do Museu Paraense Emílio Goeldi. Ciências Humanas, Belém, Vol. 2, No. 2, pp. 19–72. Accessed fromDiACL, 9 February 2020.
  15. ^Gildea, S. (2012). Linguistic studies in the Cariban family. In Campbell, L. & Grondona, V. (eds.), The Indigenous Languages of South America: A Comprehensive Guide. 441–494, Berlin: De Gruyter Mouton. Accessed fromDiACLArchived 2020-06-26 at theWayback Machine, 9 February 2020.

External links

[edit]
Wiktionary has a list of reconstructed forms atAppendix:Proto-Cariban reconstructions
Parukotoan
Pekodian
Xinguan
Paranayubic
Kuikuroan
Venezuelan Carib
Pemóng–Panare
Mapoyo–Tamanaku
Paravilhana–Sapará
Mapoyo-Yawarana
Unclassified
Guianan Carib
Taranoan
Opón–Yukpa
Yawaperí
Apalaí
Italics indicateextinct languages
Official language
Indigenous
languages
Arawakan
Cariban
Chibchan
Guahiban
Jirajaran†
Otomákoan†
Timotean†
Yanomaman
Piaroa-Saliban
Ticuna-Yuri
Other
Non-Native
languages
Sign languages
Africa
Isolates
Eurasia
(Europe
andAsia)
Isolates
New Guinea
andthe Pacific
Isolates
Australia
Isolates
North
America
Isolates
Mesoamerica
Isolates
South
America
Isolates
Sign
languages
Isolates
See also
  • Families with question marks (?) are disputed or controversial.
  • Families initalics have no living members.
  • Families with more than 30 languages are inbold.
Based onCampbell 2024 classification
Language families
and isolates
Je–Tupi–Carib ?
Macro-Jêsensu stricto
EasternBrazil
Orinoco (Venezuela)
Andes (Colombia andVenezuela)
Amazon (Colombia,Japurá–Vaupés area)
Pacific coast (Colombia andEcuador)
Pacific coast (Peru)
Amazon (Peru)
Amazon (west-centralBrazil)
Mamoré–Guaporé
Andes (Peru,Bolivia, andChile)
Chaco–Pampas
Far South (Chile)
Proposed groupings
Unclassified
Linguistic areas
Countries
Lists
† indicates anextinct language,italics indicates independent status of a language,bold indicates that a language family has at least 6 members, * indicates moribund status
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