Inarchitecture, thecapital (from Latincaput'head') orchapiter forms the topmost member of acolumn (or apilaster). It mediates between the column and the load thrusting down upon it, broadening the area of the column's supporting surface. The capital, projecting on each side as it rises to support theabacus, joins the usually square abacus and the usually circular shaft of the column. The capital may be convex, as in theDoric order; concave, as in theinverted bell of theCorinthian order; or scrolling out, as in theIonic order. These form the three principal types on which all capitals in theclassical tradition are based.
TheComposite order was formalized in the 16th century following Roman Imperial examples such as theArch of Titus in Rome. It adds Ionicvolutes to Corinthianacanthus leaves.
From the highly visible position it occupies in allcolonnaded monumental buildings, the capital is often selected for ornamentation; and is often the clearest indicator of thearchitectural order. The treatment of its detail may be an indication of the building's date.
Capitals occur in many styles of architecture, before and after theclassical architecture in which they are so prominent.
The two earliestEgyptian capitals of importance are those based on thelotus andpapyrus plants respectively, and these, with thepalm tree capital, were the chief types employed by the Egyptians, until under thePtolemies in the 3rd to 1st centuries BC, various other river plants were also employed, and the conventional lotus capital went through various modifications.
Many motifs of Egyptian ornamentation aresymbolic, such as thescarab, or sacred beetle, thesolar disk, and thevulture. Other common motifs includepalm leaves, thepapyrus plant, and the buds and flowers of thelotus.[1]
Some of the most popular types of capitals were theHathor, lotus, papyrus and Egyptian composite. Most of the types are based on vegetal motifs. Capitals of some columns were painted in bright colors.
Some kind of volute capital is shown in theAssyrianbas-reliefs, but no Assyrian capital has ever been found; the enriched bases exhibited in theBritish Museum were initially misinterpreted as capitals.
In theAchaemenidPersian capital, thebrackets are carved with two heavily decorated back-to-back animals projecting right and left to support thearchitrave; on their backs they carry other brackets at right angles to support the cross timbers. Thebull is the most common, but there are alsolions andgriffins. The capital extends below for further than in most other styles, with decoration drawn from the many cultures that the Persian Empire conquered includingEgypt,Babylon, andLydia. There are doublevolutes at the top and, inverted, bottom of a long plain fluted section which is square, although the shaft of the column is round, and also fluted.
The earliest Aegean capital is that shown in thefrescoes atKnossos in Crete (1600 BC); it was of the convex type, probably moulded instucco. Capitals of the second, concave type, include the richly carved examples of the columns flanking theTomb of Agamemnon inMycenae (c. 1100 BC): they are carved with achevron device, and with a concaveapophyge on which the buds of some flowers are sculpted.
The orders, structural systems for organising component parts, played a crucial role in the Greeks' search for perfection of ratio and proportion. The Greeks and Romans distinguished threeclassical orders of architecture, the Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian orders; each had different types of capitals atop the columns of theirhypostyle andtrabeate monumental buildings. Throughout theMediterranean Basin, theNear East, and the widerHellenistic world including theGreco-Bactrian Kingdom and theIndo-Greek Kingdom, numerous variations on these and other designs of capitals co-existed with the regular classical orders. The only architectural treatise of classical antiquity to survive isDe architectura by the 1st-century BC Roman architectVitruvius, who discussed the different proportions of each of these orders and made recommendations for how the column capitals of each order were to be constructed and in what proportions. In theRoman world and within theRoman Empire, the Tuscan order was employed, originally from Italy and with a capital similar to Greek Doric capitals, while theRoman imperial period saw the emergence of theComposite order, with a hybrid capital developed from Ionic and Corinthian elements. The Tuscan and Corinthian columns were counted among the classical canon of orders by the architects ofRenaissance architecture andNeoclassical architecture.
TheDoric capital is the simplest of the fiveClassical orders: it consists of theabacus above anovolo molding, with anastragal collar set below. It was developed in the lands occupied by theDorians, one of the two principal divisions of the Greek race. It became the preferred style of the Greek mainland and the western colonies (southern Italy andSicily). In theTemple of Apollo, Syracuse (c. 700 BC), theechinusmoulding has become a more definite form: this in theParthenon reaches its culmination, where the convexity is at the top and bottom with a delicate uniting curve. The sloping side of the echinus becomes flatter in the later examples, and in theColosseum atRome forms a quarter round (seeDoric order). In versions where thefrieze and other elements are simpler the same form of capital is described as being in theTuscan order. Doric reached its peak in the mid-5th century BC, and was one of the orders accepted by the Romans. Its characteristics are masculinity, strength and solidity.
The Doric capital consists of a cushion-like convex moulding known as an echinus, and a square slab termed an abacus.
Plate of the Ionic order, fromLes Ruines des plus beaux monuments de la Grèce, made in 1770 byJulien-David Le Roy
In theIonic capital, spirally coiled volutes are inserted between the abacus and the ovolo. This order appears to have been developed contemporaneously with the Doric, though it did not come into common usage and take its final shape until the mid-5th century BC. The style prevailed in Ionian lands, centred on the coast ofAsia Minor andAegean islands. The order's form was far less set than the Doric, with local variations persisting for many decades. In the Ionic capitals of the archaicTemple of Artemis atEphesus (560 BC) the width of the abacus is twice that of its depth, consequently the earliest Ionic capital known was virtually a bracket capital. A century later, in the temple on theIlissus, the abacus has become square (See the more complete discussion atIonic order). According to the Roman architectVitruvius, the Ionic order's main characteristics were beauty, femininity, and slenderness, derived from its basis on the proportion of a woman.
The volutes of an Ionic capital rest on an echinus, almost invariably carved with egg-and-dart. Above the scrolls was an abacus, more shallow than that in Doric examples, and again ornamented with egg-and-dart.
It has been suggested that the foliage of the GreekCorinthian capital was based on theAcanthus spinosus, that of the Roman on theAcanthus mollis. Not all architectural foliage is as realistic as Isaac Ware's (illustration, right) however. The leaves are generally carved in two "ranks" or bands, like one leafy cup set within another. The Corinthian capitals from the Tholos ofEpidaurus (400 BC) illustrate the transition between the earlier Greek capital, as atBassae, and the Roman version that Renaissance and modern architects inherited and refined (See the more complete discussion atCorinthian order).
InRoman architectural practice, capitals are briefly treated in their proper context among the detailing proper to each of the "Orders", in the only complete architectural textbook to have survived from classical times, theDe architectura, by Marcus Vitruvius Pollio, better known asVitruvius, dedicated to the emperorAugustus. The various orders are discussed in Vitruvius' books iii and iv. Vitruvius describes Roman practice in a practical fashion. He gives some tales about the invention of each of the orders, but he does not give a hard and fast set of canonical rules for the execution of capitals.
Two further, specifically Roman orders of architecture have their characteristic capitals, the sturdy and primitiveTuscan capitals, typically used in military buildings, similar to Greek Doric, but with fewer small moldings in its profile, and the inventedComposite capitals not even mentioned by Vitruvius, which combined Ionic volutes and Corinthian acanthus capitals, in an order that was otherwise quite similar in proportions to the Corinthian, itself an order that Romans employed much more often than Greeks.
The increasing adoption of Composite capitals signalled a trend towards freer, more inventive (and often more coarsely carved) capitals inLate Antiquity.
Illustration of a Corinthian anta, fromA handbook of ornament, published in 1896
Theanta capital is not a capital which is set on top of column, but rather on top of ananta, a structural post integrated into the frontal end of a wall, such as the front of the side wall of a temple.
The top of an anta is often highly decorated, usually with bands of floral motifs. The designs often respond to an order of columns, but usually with a different set of design principles.[4] In order not to protrude excessively from the wall surface, these structures tend to have a rather flat surface, forming brick-shaped capitals, called "anta capitals". Anta capitals are known from the time of the Doric order.[5]
An anta capital can sometimes be qualified as a "sofa" capital or a "sofa anta capital" when the sides of the capital broaden upward, in a shape reminiscent of a couch orsofa.[6][7][8]
Anta capitals are sometimes hard to distinguish frompilaster capitals, which are rather decorative, and do not have the same structural role as anta capitals.
The origins of theTuscan order lie with the Etruscans and are found on their tombs. Although the Romans perceived it as especially Italianate, theTuscan capital found on Roman monuments is in fact closer to the Greek Doric order than to Etruscan examples, its capital being nearby identical with the Doric.
Tuscan capital andentablature, illustration from the 18th century
The Romans invented theComposite order by uniting the Corinthian order with the Ionic capital, possibly as early asAugustus's reign. In many versions the Composite order volutes are larger, however, and there is generally some ornament placed centrally between the volutes. Despite this origin, very manyComposite capitals in fact treat the two volutes as different elements, each springing from one side of their leafy base. In this, and in having a separate ornament between them, they resemble theArchaic GreekAeolic order, though this seems not to have been the route of their development in earlyImperial Rome. Equally, where the Greek Ionic volute is usually shown from the side as a single unit of unchanged width between the front and back of the column, the Composite volutes are normally treated as four different thinner units, one at each corner of the capital, projecting at some 45° to the façade.
TheLion Capital of Ashoka; circa 3rd century BC; polished sandstone; height: 2.2 m;Sarnath Museum (Saranath, nearVaranasi,Uttar Pradesh, India)
The Lion Capital of Ashoka is an iconic capital which consists of fourAsiatic lions standing back to back, on an elaborate base that includes other animals. A graphic representation of it was adopted as the officialEmblem of India in 1950.[9] This powerfully carved lion capital fromSarnath stood a top a pillar bearing the edicts of the emperorAshoka. Like most of Ashoka's capitals, it is brilliantly polished. Located at the site of Buddha's first sermon and the formation of the Buddhist order, it carried imperial and Buddhist symbols, reflecting the universal authority of both the emperor's and the Buddha's words. The capital today serves as the emblem of the Republic ofIndia. Minus theinverted bell-shapedlotus flower, this has been adopted as theNational Emblem of India, seen from another angle, showing the horse on the left and the bull on the right of theAshoka Chakra in the circular base on which the fourIndian lions are standing back to back. On the side shown here there are the bull and elephant; a lion occupies the other place. The wheel "Ashoka Chakra" from its base has been placed onto the centre of theNational Flag of India
ThePataliputra capital is a monumental rectangular capital withvolutes designs, that was discovered in the palace ruins of the ancientMauryan Empire capital city ofPataliputra (modernPatna, northeasternIndia). It is dated to the 3rd century BC. The top is made of a band ofrosettes, eleven in total for the fronts and four for the sides. Below that is a band ofbead and reel pattern, then under it a band of waves, generally right-to-left, except for the back where they are left-to-right. Further below is a band ofegg-and-dart pattern, with eleven "tongues" or "eggs" on the front, and only seven on the back. Below appears the main motif, aflame palmette, growing among pebbles.
TheSarnath capital is a pillar capital, sometimes also described as a "stone bracket", discovered in the archaeological excavations at the ancientBuddhist site ofSarnath. The pillar displaysIonic volutes andpalmettes.[10][11] It has been variously dated from the 3rd century BCE during theMauryan Empire period,[12] to the 1st century BCE, during theSunga Empire period.[10]
Figure ofBuddha, in the centre of a Corinthian capital, made during the ancientGandhara state, between the 1st to the 3rd century AD, found atJamal Garhi
Some capitals with strong Greek and Persian influence have been found in northeastern India in theMaurya Empire palace ofPataliputra, dating to the 4th–3rd century BC. Examples such as thePataliputra capital belong to theIonic order rather than the laterCorinthian order. They are witness to relations between India and the West from that early time.
Indo-Corinthian capitals correspond to the much more abundant Corinthian-style capitals crowning columns or pilasters, which can be found in the northwesternIndian subcontinent, particularly inGandhara, and usually combineHellenistic andIndian elements. These capitals are typically dated to the first century BC, and constitute important elements ofGreco-Buddhist art.
The Classical design was often adapted, usually taking a more elongated form, and sometimes being combined with scrolls, generally within the context of Buddhiststupas andtemples. Indo-Corinthian capitals also incorporated figures of theBuddha orBodhisattvas, usually as central figures surrounded by, and often under the shade of, the luxurious foliage of Corinthian designs.
Byzantine capitals vary widely, mostly developing from the classical Corinthian, but tending to have an even surface level, with the ornamentation undercut with drills. The block of stone was left rough as it came from the quarry, and the sculptor evolved new designs to his own fancy, so that one rarely meets with many repetitions of the same design. One of the most remarkable designs features leaves carved as if blown by the wind; the finest example being at the 8th-centuryHagia Sophia (Thessaloniki). Those in theCathedral of Saint Mark, Venice (1071) specially attractedJohn Ruskin's fancy. Others appear inSant'Apollinare in Classe,Ravenna (549).
The capital inSan Vitale, Ravenna (547) shows above it thedosseret required to carry thearch, the springing of which was much wider than the abacus of the capital. On eastern capitals the eagle, the lion and the lamb are occasionally carved, but treated conventionally.
There are two types of capitals used atHagia Sophia: Composite and Ionic. The composite capital that emerged during the LateByzantine Empire, mainly in Rome, combines theCorinthian with theIonic.Composite capitals line the principal space of the nave. Ionic capitals are used behind them in the side spaces, in a mirror position relative to the Corinthian or composite orders (as was their fate well into the 19th century, when buildings were designed for the first time with a monumental Ionic order). At Hagia Sophia, though, these are not the standard imperial statements. The capitals are filled with foliage in all sorts of variations. In some, the small, lush leaves appear to be caught up in the spinning of the scrolls – clearly, a different, nonclassical sensibility has taken over the design.
The capitals atBasilica of San Vitale inRavenna (Italy) show wavy and delicate floral patterns similar to decorations found on belt buckles and dagger blades. Their inverted pyramidal form has the look of a basket.
Capitals in earlyIslamic architecture are derived from Graeco-Roman and Byzantine forms, reflecting the training of most of the masons producing them.
Illustration of the Corinthian capital of the mid-5th-centuryColumn of Marcian, with apulvino above it.
Corinthian capital from the late 5th-century "Basilica A" atPhilippi
Capital from the late 5th-century "Basilica A" atPhilippi
In both periods small columns are often used close together in groups, often around apier that is in effect a single larger column, or running along a wall surface. The structural importance of the individual column is thereby greatly reduced. In both periods, though there are common types, the sense of a strict order with rules was not maintained, and when the budget allowed, carvers were able to indulge their inventiveness. Capitals were sometimes used to hold depictions of figures and narrative scenes, especially in theRomanesque.
InRomanesque architecture andGothic architecture capitals throughout western Europe present as much variety as in the East, and for the same reason, that the sculptor evolved his design in accordance with the block he was carving, but in the west variety goes further, because of the clustering of columns andpiers.
The earliest type of capital inLombardy andGermany is known as the cushion-cap, in which the lower portion of the cube block has been cut away to meet the circular shaft. These types were generally painted at first with geometrical designs, afterwards carved.
The finest carving comes from France, especially from the area around Paris. The most varied were carved in 1130–1170.[13]
In Britain and France the figures introduced into the capitals are sometimes full of character, these are referred to as historiated (or figured capital). These capitals, however, are not equal to those of theEarly English Gothic, in which foliage is treated as if copied from metalwork, and is of infinite variety, being found in small village churches as well as in cathedrals.
Simple, Romanesque cushion capital in the crypt ofLund Cathedral (Sweden)
Armenian capitals are often versions of Byzantine forms. In the 4th-7th centuries the capitals of Armenian architectural facades and masonry facades are tall rectangular stones with a total volume, which are converted into a slab by means of a bell. In the structures of the early period (Ereruyk,Tekor,Tsopk, etc.) they were sculpted with plant and animal images, palm trees. In the 10th century and in the following centuries, capitals are mainly formed by a combination of a cylinder and a slab. The structures of Armenian palaces, churches, courtyards (Dvin,Aruch,Zvartnots,Ishkhan, Banak,Haghpat,Sanahin,Ani structures) are diverse and unique.
Illustrations ofBaroque capitals from France, in theCooper Hewitt, Smithsonian Design Museum (New York City)Column capital.Yarkand mosqueRichly decorated pillar capital at Urgyen Sanag Choling Monastery. Pin Valley, Spiti
In theRenaissance period the feature became of the greatest importance and its variety almost as great as in the Romanesque and Gothic styles. The flat pilaster, which was employed extensively in this period, called for a planar rendition of the capital, executed in high relief. This affected the designs of capitals. A traditional 15th-century variant of the Composite capital turns the volutes inwards above stiffened leaf carving. In new Renaissance combinations in capital designs most of the ornament can be traced to Classical Roman sources.
The 'Renaissance' was as much a reinterpretation as a revival of Classical norms. For example, the volutes of ancient Greek and Roman Ionic capitals had lain in the same plane as the architrave above them. This had created an awkward transition at the corner – where, for example, the designer of the temple ofAthena Nike on theAcropolis in Athens had brought the outside volute of the end capitals forward at a 45-degree angle. This problem was more satisfactorily solved by the 16th-century architectSebastiano Serlio, who angled outwards all volutes of his Ionic capitals. Since then use of antique Ionic capitals, instead of Serlio's version, has lent an archaic air to the entire context, as inGreek Revival.
There are numerous newly invented orders, sometimes callednonce orders, where a different ornamentation of the capital is typically a key feature. Within the bounds ofdecorum, a certain amount of inventive play has always been acceptable within the classical tradition. These became increasingly common after the Renaissance. WhenBenjamin Latrobe redesigned the Senate Vestibule in theUnited States Capitol in 1807, he introduced six columns that he "Americanized" with ears of corn (maize) substituting for the European acanthus leaves. As Latrobe reported toThomas Jefferson in August 1809,
These capitals during the summer session obtained me more applause from members of Congress than all the works of magnitude or difficulty that surround them. They christened them the 'corncob capitals'.
Another example is theDelhi Order invented by the British architectEdwin Lutyens forNew Delhi's central palace, Viceroy's House, now the Presidential residenceRashtrapati Bhavan, using elements ofIndian architecture.[14] Here the capital had a band of vertical ridges, with bells hanging at each corner as a replacement for volutes.[15] The Delhi Order reappears in some later Lutyens buildings includingCampion Hall, Oxford.[16]
^Presented as a "Mauryan capital, 250 BC" with the addition of recumbant lions at the base, in the page "Types of early capitals" inBrown, Percy (1959).Indian Architecture (Buddhist And Hindu). p. x.
^John James, The Creation of Gothic Architecture – an Illustrated Thesaurus: The Ark of God, vols. 5, London and Hartley Vale, 2002/2008.
^Gradidge, Roderick (1981).Edwin Lutyens: Architect Laureate. London: George Allen and Unwin. p. 69.ISBN0-04-720023-5.
^Gradidge, Roderick (1981).Edwin Lutyens: Architect Laureate. London: George Allen and Unwin. p. 151.ISBN0-04-720023-5.
^Gradidge, Roderick (1981).Edwin Lutyens: Architect Laureate. London: George Allen and Unwin. p. 161.ISBN0-04-720023-5.
Lewis, Philippa & Gillian Darley (1986)Dictionary of Ornament, NY: Pantheon
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