Cape Breton Island (French:île du Cap-Breton, formerlyîle Royale;Scottish Gaelic:Ceap Breatainn orEilean Cheap Bhreatainn;Mi'kmaq:Unama'ki)[5] is a rugged and irregularly shaped island[6] on the Atlantic coast of North America and part of the province ofNova Scotia, Canada.[7]
The 10,311 km2 (3,981 sq mi) island accounts for 18.7% of Nova Scotia's total area. Although the island is physically separated from theNova Scotia peninsula by theStrait of Canso, the 1,385 m (4,544 ft) longCanso Causeway connects it to mainland Nova Scotia. The island is east-northeast of the mainland with its northern and western coasts fronting on theGulf of Saint Lawrence with its western coast forming the eastern limits of theNorthumberland Strait. The eastern and southern coasts front the Atlantic Ocean with its eastern coast also forming the western limits of theCabot Strait. Its landmass slopes upward from south to north, culminating in thehighlands of its northern cape. A large body of saltwater, theBras d'Or ("Golden Arm" in French), dominates the island's centre.
The total population at the2016 census numbered 132,010 Cape Bretoners, which is approximately 15% of the provincial population.[4] Cape Breton Island has experienced a decline in population of approximately 2.9% since the 2011 census. Approximately 75% of the island's population is in theCape Breton Regional Municipality (CBRM), which includes all of Cape Breton County and is often referred to asIndustrial Cape Breton.
Cape Breton Island takes its name from its easternmost point, Cape Breton.[8] This may have been named after theGascon fishing port ofCapbreton,[9] but more probably takes its name from theBretons of northwestern France. A Portuguesemappa mundi of 1516–20 includes the label "terra q(ue) foy descuberta por Bertomes" in the vicinity of the Gulf of St Lawrence, which means "land discovered by Bretons".[10] The name "Cape Breton" first appears on a map of 1516, asC(abo) dos Bretoes,[10] and became the general name for both the island and the cape toward the end of the 16th century.[8]
The indigenousMi'kmawi'simk name for the island isUnama'ki, which loosely translates to "land of fog."[11] Unama'ki is one of the seven districts of Mi'kmaw Country,Mi'kma'ki, which itself forms one branch of theWabanaki Confederacy. The district hosts the seat of the Grand Council (Sante' Mawio'mi) atMniku, which still functions as the capital of the nation in thePotlotek reserve.[12] Despite colonial efforts to replace indigenous names,[13] the use of "Unama'ki" has increased in recent years, with examples including Unama'ki College (an offshoot ofCape Breton University),[14] the multicultural festival "Hello Cape Breton - Kwe' Unama'ki,"[15] and private organizations using the name, including, for example, Cape Breton Partnership's investment campaign titled "Invest in Unama’ki – Cape Breton."[16]
Cape Breton Island's first residents were likelyarchaic maritime natives, ancestors of theMi'kmaq people. These peoples and their progeny inhabited the island (known as Unama'ki) for several thousand years and continue to live there to this day. Their traditional lifestyle centred around hunting and fishing because of the unfavourable agricultural conditions of their maritime home. This ocean-centric lifestyle did, however, make them among the firstIndigenous peoples to discover European explorers and sailors fishing in the St Lawrence Estuary. Italian explorer (sailing for the British crown)John Cabot reportedly visited the island in 1497.[7] However, European histories and maps of the period are of too poor quality to be sure whether Cabot first visitedNewfoundland or Cape Breton Island. This discovery is commemorated by Cape Breton'sCabot Trail, and by the Cabot's Landing Historic Site & Provincial Park, near the village ofDingwall.
The local Mi'kmaq peoples began trading with European fishermen when the fishermen began landing in their territories as early as the 1520s. In about 1521–22, the Portuguese underJoão Álvares Fagundes established a fishing colony on the island. As many as two hundred settlers lived in a village, the name of which is not known, located according to some historians at what is nowIngonish on the island's northeastern peninsula. These fishermen traded with the local population but did not maintain a permanent settlement. This Portuguese colony's fate is unknown, but it is mentioned as late as 1570.[17]
These Scottish triumphs, which leftCape Sable as the only major French holding in North America, did not last.[18] Charles I's haste to make peace with France on the terms most beneficial to him meant the new North American gains would be bargained away in theTreaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye,[19][full citation needed] which established which European power had laid claim over the territories.
The French quickly defeated the Scots atBaleine, and established the first European settlements on Île Royale, which is present-dayEnglishtown (1629) andSt. Peter's (1630). These settlements lasted only one generation, untilNicolas Denys left in 1659. The island did not have any European settlers for another fifty years before those communities along withLouisbourg were re-established in 1713, after which point European settlement was permanently established on the island.
Known asÎle Royale ("Royal Island") to the French, the island also saw active settlement by France. After the French ceded their claims toNewfoundland and theAcadian mainland to the British by theTreaty of Utrecht in 1713, the French relocated the population ofPlaisance, Newfoundland, toÎle Royale and the Frenchgarrison was established in the central eastern part atSainte Anne. As the harbour at Sainte Anne experienced icing problems, it was decided to build a much larger fortification atLouisbourg to improve defences at the entrance to theGulf of Saint Lawrence and to defend France's fishing fleet on theGrand Banks.[20] The French also built theLouisbourg Lighthouse in 1734, the first lighthouse in Canada and one of the first in North America. In addition to Cape Breton Island, the French colony of Île Royale also includedÎle Saint-Jean, today called Prince Edward Island, andLes Îles-de-la-Madeleine.
Louisbourg itself was one of the most important commercial and military centres in New France. Louisbourg was captured by New Englanders[7] with British naval assistance in theSiege of Louisbourg (1745)[21] and by British forces in 1758. The French population of Île Royale was deported to France after each siege. While French settlers returned to their homes in Île Royale after theTreaty of Aix-la-Chapelle was signed in 1748,[21] the fortress was demolished after thesecond siege in 1758. Île Royale remained formally part ofNew France until it was ceded toGreat Britain by theTreaty of Paris in 1763. It was then merged with the adjacent British colony of Nova Scotia (present-day peninsular Nova Scotia andNew Brunswick). Acadians who had beenexpelled from Nova Scotia and Île Royale were permitted to settle in Cape Breton beginning in 1764,[21] and established communities in northwestern Cape Breton, nearChéticamp, and southern Cape Breton, on and nearIsle Madame.
Some of the first British-sanctioned settlers on the island following theSeven Years' War were Irish, although upon settlement they merged with local French communities to form a culture rich in music and tradition. From 1763 to 1784, the island was administratively part of the colony of Nova Scotia[7] and was governed fromHalifax.
The first permanently settledScottish community on Cape Breton Island wasJudique, settled in 1775 by Michael Mor MacDonald. He spent his first winter using his upside-down boat for shelter, which is reflected in the architecture of the village's Community Centre. He composed a song about the area called "O 's àlainn an t-àite", or "O, Fair is the Place."
During theAmerican Revolution, on 1 November 1776,John Paul Jones, the father of the American Navy, set sail in command ofAlfred to free hundreds of American prisoners working in the area's coal mines. Although winter conditions prevented the freeing of the prisoners, the mission did result in the capture ofMellish, a vessel carrying a vital supply of winter clothing intended forJohn Burgoyne's troops in Canada.
Major Timothy Hierlihy and his regiment on boardHMS Hope worked in and protected the coal mines at Sydney Cape Breton from privateer attacks.[25] Sydney, Cape Breton provided a vital supply of coal for Halifax throughout the war. The British began developing the mining site at Sydney Mines in 1777. On 14 May 1778, Major Hierlihy arrived at Cape Breton. While there, Hierlihy reported that he "beat off many piratical attacks, killed some and took other prisoners."[26][27]
A few years into the war, there was alsoa naval engagement between French ships and a British convoy off Sydney, Nova Scotia, near Spanish River (1781), Cape Breton.[28] French ships, fighting with the Americans, were re-coaling and defeated a British convoy. Six French and 17 British sailors were killed, with many more wounded.
In 1784, Britain split the colony ofNova Scotia into three separate colonies: New Brunswick, Cape Breton Island, and present-day peninsular Nova Scotia, in addition to the adjacent colonies ofSt. John's Island (renamed Prince Edward Island in 1798) andNewfoundland. The colony of Cape Breton Island had its capital atSydney on its namesake harbour fronting onSpanish Bay and theCabot Strait. Its first Lieutenant-Governor wasJoseph Frederick Wallet DesBarres (1784–1787) and his successor wasWilliam Macarmick (1787).
An order forbidding the granting of land in Cape Breton, issued in 1763, was removed in 1784. The mineral rights to the island were given over to theDuke of York by an order-in-council. The British government had intended that the Crown take over the operation of the mines when Cape Breton was made a colony, but this was never done, probably because of the rehabilitation cost of the mines. The mines were in a neglected state, caused by careless operations dating back at least to the time of the final fall of Louisbourg in 1758.
Large-scale shipbuilding began in the 1790s, beginning withschooners for local trade, moving in the 1820s to largerbrigs andbrigantines, mostly built for British ship owners. Shipbuilding peaked in the 1850s, marked in 1851 by thefull-rigged shipLord Clarendon, which was the largest wooden ship ever built in Cape Breton.
In 1820, the colony of Cape Breton Island was merged for the second time with Nova Scotia. This development is one of the factors which led to large-scale industrial development in the Sydney Coal Field of eastern Cape Breton County. By the late 19th century, as a result of the faster shipping, expanding fishery and industrialization of the island, exchanges of people between the island ofNewfoundland and Cape Breton increased, beginning a cultural exchange that continues to this day.
The 1920s were some of the most violent times in Cape Breton. They were marked by several severe labour disputes. The famous murder ofWilliam Davis by strike breakers, and the seizing of theNew Waterford power plant by striking miners led to a major union sentiment that persists to this day in some circles.William Davis Miners' Memorial Day continues to be celebrated in coal mining towns to commemorate the deaths of miners at the hands of the coal companies.
The turn of the 20th century saw Cape Breton Island at the forefront of scientific achievement with the now-famous activities launched by inventorsAlexander Graham Bell andGuglielmo Marconi.
Following his successful invention of the telephone and being relatively wealthy, Bell acquired land nearBaddeck in 1885. He chose the land, which he namedBeinn Bhreagh, largely due to its resemblance to his early surroundings inScotland. He established a summer estate complete with research laboratories, working with deaf people includingHelen Keller, and continued to invent. Baddeck would be the site of his experiments withhydrofoil technologies as well as theAerial Experiment Association, financed by his wifeMabel Gardiner Hubbard. These efforts resulted in the first powered flight in Canada when theAEASilver Dart took off from the ice-covered waters ofBras d'Or Lake. Bell also built the forerunner to theiron lung and experimented with breeding sheep.
Marconi's contributions to Cape Breton Island were also quite significant, as he used the island's geography to his advantage in transmitting the first North American trans-Atlantic radio message[32] from a station constructed at Table Head inGlace Bay[33] to a receiving station atPoldhu in Cornwall, England. Marconi's pioneering work in Cape Breton marked the beginning of modern radio technology. Marconi's station atMarconi Towers, on the outskirts of Glace Bay, became the chief communication centre for theRoyal Canadian Navy inWorld War I through to the early years ofWorld War II.
Promotions for tourism beginning in the 1950s recognized the importance of the Scottish culture to the province, as the provincial government started encouraging the use ofGaelic once again. The establishment of funding for theGaelic College of Celtic Arts and Crafts and formal Gaeliclanguage courses in public schools are intended to address the near-loss of this culture toassimilation into Anglophone Canadian culture.
The island is characterized by a number of elevations of ancientcrystalline andmetamorphic rock rising up from the south to the north, and contrasted with eroded lowlands. The bedrock of blocks that developed in different places around the globe, at different times, and then were fused together viatectonics.[36]
Cape Breton is formed from threeterranes. These are fragments of the Earth'scrust formed on atectonic plate and attached byaccretion orsuture to crust lying on another plate. Each of these has its own distinctive geologic history, which is different from that of the surrounding areas. The southern half of the island formed from theAvalon terrane, which was once amicrocontinent in thePaleozoic era. It is made up ofvolcanic rock that formed near what is now called Africa.[37] Most of the northern half of the island is on the Bras d'Or terrane (part of theGanderia terrane). It contains volcanic andsedimentary rock formed off the coast of what is nowSouth America.[37] The third terrane is the relatively small Blair Riverinlier on the far northwestern tip. It contains the oldest rock in the Maritimes, formed up to 1.6 billion years ago.[37] These rocks, which can be seen in the Polletts Cove - Aspy Fault Wilderness Area north ofPleasant Bay, are likely part of theCanadian Shield, a large area ofPrecambrianigneous andmetamorphic rock that forms the core of theNorth American continent.
The Avalon and Bras d'Or terranes were pushed together about 500 million years ago when the supercontinentGondwana was formed. The Blair River inlier was sandwiched in between the two whenLaurussia was formed 450-360 million years ago, at which time the land was found in thetropics. This collision also formed theAppalachian Mountains. Associatedrifting andfaulting is now visible as the canyons of theCape Breton Highlands.[38] Then, during theCarboniferous period, the area was flooded, which createdsedimentary rock layers such assandstone,shale,gypsum, andconglomerate. Later, most of the island was tropical forest which later formed coal deposits.
Much later, the land was shaped by repeatedice ages which leftstriations,till,U-shaped valleys, and carved the Bras d'Or Lake from thebedrock.[38] Examples of U-shaped valleys are those of theChéticamp,Grande Anse, and Clyburn River valleys. Other valleys have been eroded by water, forming V-shaped valleys andcanyons. Cape Breton has many fault lines but few earthquakes. Since the North American continent is moving westward, earthquakes tend to occur on the western edge of the continent.
The warm summerhumid continental climate is moderated by the proximity of the cold, oftentimes polarLabrador Current and its warmer counterpart theGulf Stream, both being dominant currents in the North Atlantic Ocean.
There are lowland areas in along the western shore, around Lake Ainslie, the Bras d'Or watershed,Boularderie Island, and the Sydney coalfield. They include salt marshes, coastal beaches, and freshwater wetlands.[40]
Starting in the 1800s, many areas were cleared for farming or timber. Many farms were abandoned from the 1920s to the 1950s with fields being reclaimed bywhite spruce,red maple,white birch, andbalsam fir.[40] Higher slopes are dominated byyellow birch andsugar maple. In sheltered areas with sun and drainage,Acadian forest is found. Wetter areas havetamarack, andblack spruce. The weather station at Ingonish records more rain than anywhere else in Nova Scotia.[40]
Red sandstone and white gypsum cliffs can be observed throughout this area. Bedrock is Carboniferous sedimentary withlimestone, shale, and sandstone. Manyfluvial remains from are glaciation found here. Mining has been ongoing for centuries, and more than 500 mine openings can be found, mainly in the east.[40]
Karst topography is found in Dingwall, South Harbour, Plaster Provincial Park, along the Margaree and Middle Rivers, and along the north shore of Lake Ainslie. The presence of gypsum and limestone increases soilpH and produces some rich wetlands which supportgiant spear,tufted fen, and othermosses, as well as vascular plants likesedges.[40]
This ecosystem is spread throughout Cape Breton and is defined as hills and slopes 150-300m above sea level, typically covered with Acadian forest.[40]
Forests in this area were cleared for timber and agriculture and are now a mosaic of habitats depending on the local terrain, soils andmicroclimate. Typical species include ironwood, white ash, beech, sugar maple, red maple, and yellow birch. The understory can include striped maple,beaked hazelnut, flyhoneysuckle, club mosses andferns. Ephemerals are visible in the spring, such asDutchman's breeches andspring beauty.[40]
In ravines, shade tolerant trees likehemlock, white pine,red spruce are found. Less well-drained areas are forested with balsam fir and black spruce.
An extension of theAppalachian mountain chain, elevations average 350 metres at the edges of the plateau and rise to more than 500 metres at the centre. The area has broad, gently rolling hills bisected with deep valleys and steep-walled canyons. A majority of the land is ataiga of balsam fir, with some white birch, white spruce, mountain ash, and heart-leaf birch.[40]
The northern and western edges of the plateau, particularly at high elevations, resemble arctictundra. Trees 30–90 high, overgrown withreindeer lichens, can be 150 years old. At very high elevations some areas are exposed bedrock without any vegetation apart fromCladonia lichens. There are many barrens, orheaths, dominated by bushy species of theEricaceae family.
The eastern shore is unique in that while not at a high elevation, it has a cool climate with much rain and fog, strong winds, and low summer temperatures. It is dominated by a boreal forest of black spruce and balsam fir. Sheltered areas support tolerant hardwoods such as white birch and red maple. Many salt marshes, fens, and bogs are found there.[40]
There are many beaches on the highly crenelated coastline. Unlike elsewhere on the island, these are rocky and support plants unlike those of sandy beaches. The coast provides habitat for common coast bird species likecommon eider,black legged kittiwake,black guillemot, whimbrel, andgreat cormorant.
The former Congregation Sons of Israel synagogue, in Glace Bay. In 1902, the synagogue was Nova Scotia's first purpose-built synagogue. It permanently closed in July 2010. To the left is the also closed Talmud Torah community centre. This was the location of the Hebrew school and functions like Bar Mitzvah and wedding dinners.
The island's residents can be grouped into five main cultures:Scottish,Mi'kmaq,Acadian, Irish, and English, with respective languagesScottish Gaelic,Mi'kmaq,French, and English alongside severalsign languages includingMaritime Sign Language.[41] English is now the primary language, including a locally distinctiveCape Breton accent, while Mi'kmaq, Scottish Gaelic and Acadian French are still spoken in some communities. Amongst sign languages, it is unknown to what extentLSQ is spoken amongst Acadians, butAmerican Sign Language is certainly predominant across the island, as it has gained significant numbers of signers, especially with the steep declines inMaritime Sign Language use.[41]
Later migrations ofBlack Loyalists, Italians, and Eastern Europeans mostly settled in the island's eastern part around the industrial Cape Breton region. Cape Breton Island's population has been in decline two decades with an increasing exodus in recent years due to economic conditions.
Statistics Canada in 2001 reported a "religion" total of 145,525 for Cape Breton, including 5,245 with "no religious affiliation."[44][45] Major categories included:
Much of the recent economic history of Cape Breton Island can be tied to the coal industry.
The island has two major coal deposits:
the Sydney Coal Field in the southeastern part of the island along the Atlantic Ocean drove the Industrial Cape Breton economy throughout the 19th and 20th centuries—until after World War II, its industries were the largest private employers in Canada.
the Inverness Coal Field in the western part of the island along the Gulf of St. Lawrence is significantly smaller but hosted several mines.
Sydney has traditionally been the main port, with facilities in a large, sheltered, natural harbour. It is the island's largest commercial centre and home to theCape Breton Post daily newspaper, as well as one television station,CJCB-TV (CTV),[Note 1] and several radio stations. TheMarine Atlantic terminal atNorth Sydney is the terminal for large ferries traveling toChannel-Port aux Basques and seasonally toArgentia, both on the island ofNewfoundland.
Point Edward on the west side of Sydney Harbour is the location of Sydport, a formernavy base (HMCS Protector) now converted to commercial use. TheCanadian Coast Guard College is nearby at Westmount. Petroleum, bulk coal, and cruise ship facilities are also in Sydney Harbour.
Glace Bay, the second largest urban community in population, was the island's main coal mining centre until its last mine closed in the 1980s. Glace Bay was the hub of the Sydney & Louisburg Railway and a major fishing port. At one time, Glace Bay was known as the largest town in Nova Scotia, based on population.
Port Hawkesbury has risen to prominence since the completion of the Canso Causeway andCanso Canal created an artificial deep-water port, allowing extensive petrochemical, pulp and paper, and gypsum handling facilities to be established. The Strait of Canso is completely navigable toSeawaymax vessels, and Port Hawkesbury is open to the deepest-draught vessels on the world's oceans. Large marine vessels may also enter Bras d'Or Lake through the Great Bras d'Or channel, and small craft can use the Little Bras d'Or channel orSt. Peters Canal. While commercial shipping no longer uses the St. Peters Canal, it remains an important waterway for recreational vessels.
The industrial Cape Breton area faced several challenges with the closure of theCape Breton Development Corporation's (DEVCO) coal mines and theSydney Steel Corporation's (SYSCO)steel mill. In recent years, the Island's residents have tried to diversify the area economy by investing in tourism developments,call centres, and small businesses, as well as manufacturing ventures in fields such as auto parts, pharmaceuticals, and window glazings.
Cape Breton Island's most recognizable and commonly used flagCape Breton Island's "Eagle" flag (1994)[47]Cape Breton Island's second cultural flag, the "Tartan" flag (early 1990s)Cape Breton Island's first cultural flag, the blue-and-yellow flag (1940s) incorporatingSaint Alban's Cross.
Gaelic speakers in Cape Breton, as elsewhere in Nova Scotia, constituted a large proportion of the local population from the 18th century on. They brought with them a common culture of poetry, traditional songs and tales, music and dance, and used this to develop distinctive local traditions.[48]
Most Gaelic settlement in Nova Scotia happened between 1770 and 1840, with probably over 50,000 Gaelic speakers emigrating from the Scottish Highlands and the Hebrides toNova Scotia andPrince Edward Island. Such emigration was facilitated or forced by changes in Gaelic society and the economy, with sharp increases in rents, confiscation of land, disruption of local customs and rights and the eviction of large parts of the population from their rented land, a process that is calledHighland Clearances.
In Nova Scotia, poetry and song in Gaelic flourished. George Emmerson argues that an "ancient and rich" tradition of storytelling, song, and Gaelic poetry emerged during the 18th century and was transplanted from the Highlands of Scotland to Nova Scotia, where the language similarly took root there.[49] The majority of those settling in Nova Scotia from the end of the 18th century through to middle of the next were from the Scottish Highlands, rather than the Lowlands, making the Highland tradition's impact more profound on the region.[50] Gaelic settlement in Cape Breton began in earnest in the early nineteenth century.[48]
The Gaelic language became dominant fromColchester County in the west of Nova Scotia into Cape Breton County in the east. It was reinforced in Cape Breton in the first half of the 19th century with an influx ofHighland Scots numbering approximately 50,000 as a result of theHighland Clearances.[51][52]
Gaelic speakers, however, tended to be poor; they were largely illiterate and had little access to education. This situation persisted into the early days of the twentieth century. In 1921 Gaelic was approved as an optional subject in the curriculum of Nova Scotia, but few teachers could be found and children were discouraged from using the language in schools. By 1931 the number of Gaelic speakers in Nova Scotia had fallen to approximately 25,000, mostly in discrete pockets. In Cape Breton it was still a majority language, but the proportion was falling. Children were no longer being raised with Gaelic.[48]
From 1939 on, attempts were made to strengthen its position in the public school system in Nova Scotia, but funding, official commitment and the availability of teachers continued to be a problem. By the 1950s the number of speakers was less than 7,000. The advent ofmulticulturalism in Canada in the 1960s meant that new educational opportunities became available, with a gradual strengthening of the language at secondary and tertiary level. At present several schools in Cape Breton offer Gaelic Studies and Gaelic language programs, and the language is taught atCape Breton University.[48]
The 2016 Canadian Census shows that there are only 40 reported speakers of Gaelic as a mother tongue in Cape Breton.[54] On the other hand, there are families and individuals who have recommenced intergenerational transmission. They include fluent speakers from Gaelic-speaking areas of Scotland and speakers who became fluent in Nova Scotia and who in some cases studied in Scotland. Other revitalization activities include adult education, community cultural events and publishing.[55]
^CBIT-TV (CBC) existed from 1972 until 31 July 2012, when the CBC closed its over-the-air analog transmitters in small markets. It produced a local news broadcast until 1991, when local news shows were consolidated to Halifax. The CBC Nova Scotia television signal, which originates from Halifax, is now available only by cable or satellite providers.[46]
^Destination Cape Breton Association Inc., Cape Breton Island (24 April 2019)."About the Island".www.cbisland.com.Archived from the original on 25 September 2020. Retrieved23 September 2020.
^Destination Cape Breton Association Inc., Cape Breton Island (24 April 2019)."About the Island".www.cbisland.com.Archived from the original on 25 September 2020. Retrieved23 September 2020.
^Everett-Heath, John (2020). "Cape Breton Island".The Concise Oxford Dictionary of World Place-Names (6 ed.). Oxford University Press.ISBN978-0-19-190563-6.
^"Honouring connections to place: Mi'kmaw language is included on signage".“Tackling Projects Together”: Toquktmekl Agreement. Parks Canada. Retrieved4 December 2024.Many Indigenous place names have been replaced by colonial names through practices and policies, including some aimed at erasing Indigenous peoples, their cultures, and languages.
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^C. J. MacGillivray. Timothy Hierlihy and his Times: The story of the Founder of Antigonish, Nova Scotia. Nova Scotia Historical Society., p.40
^C. J. MacGillivray. Timothy Hierlihy and his Times: The story of the Founder of Antigonish, N.S. Nova Scotia Historical Society., p.42
^Roland, Albert E. (1982).Geological background and physiography of Nova Scotia. Halifax, N.S.: Nova Scotian Institute of Science. pp. 248–284.ISBN0-919680-19-4.
^"Sydney NS".Canadian Climate Normals 1981–2010 (in English and French). Environment Canada. 25 September 2013.Archived from the original on 4 March 2016. Retrieved28 September 2015.
^abcdefghijkNeily, Peter; Basquill, Sean; Quigley, Eugene; Keys, Kevin."Ecological Land Classification"(PDF). Nova Scotia Department of Natural Resources.Archived(PDF) from the original on 12 August 2021. Retrieved12 August 2021.
^abYoel, Judith (January 2009).Canada's Maritime Sign Language(PDF) (Doctor of Philosophy thesis). The University of Manitoba. Retrieved25 November 2023.
^abcdKennedy, Michael (2001)."Gaelic Report"(PDF). Nova Scotia Museum.Archived(PDF) from the original on 11 October 2017. Retrieved13 January 2019.
^Emmerson, George (1976).The Scottish tradition in Canada. Reid, W. Stanford (William Stanford), 1913–1996. Toronto: McClelland and Stewart in association with the Multiculturalism Program, Dept. of the Secretary of State of Canada and the Pub. Centre, Supply and Services Canada.ISBN0771074433.OCLC2678091.
^Dunn, Charles (1968).Highland Settler: A Portrait of the Scottish Gael in Nova Scotia. University of Toronto Press. pp. 3–4.
^"History of Cape Breton Island".The Cabot Trail's Wilderness Resort on Cape Breton Island. 8 February 2010.Archived from the original on 17 November 2019. Retrieved14 June 2018.
^Dunbar, Robert (2017). "Post-Mac-Talla Gaelic Periodicals in Nova Scotia: An Assessment".Proceedings of the Harvard Celtic Colloquium.37:77–104.JSTOR45048889.
24Claimed in 1908; territory formed 1962; overlaps portions of Argentine and Chilean claims, borders not enforced but claim not renounced under theAntarctic Treaty.
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